•FROM -THE- 

SCIENTIFIC- LIBRARY- OF 

•JACQUES  -LOEB- 


NOTICE 

Additional    copies    of    this    beautiful    and 
mspmng   work    combining   both   Science   and 


THOS.  P.  NICHOLS  &  SON  CO 

Price,  $2.50.  LYNN'  MASS' 


BRIEF 


AND 


POPULAR   ACCOUNT 


OF   THE 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES 

OF 

T.  J.  J.  S-EJE, 

A.  M.,  LT.  M.,  Sc.  M.  (Missou.);  A.  M.,  PH.  D.  (BEROL.); 

FAMOUS  ASTRONOMER,  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHER,  AND  FOUNDER  OF  THE 
NEW  SCIENCES  OF  COSMOGONY  AND  GEOGONY. 


,3««J«*attmt  to  ti\t  H«*wt*r  <rf  %  Junto" 


BY  W.  L.  WEBB, 

' 

Amateur  Astronomer,  Author  of  "The  Story  of  the  Stars,"  and  Inventor  of  the  "Star  Finder; 
Author  of  a  "History  of  Missouri;"  "History  of  Greater  Kansas  City;" 
"Biography  of  Champ  Clark;"  etc. 


1913 
THOS.  P.  NICHOLS  &  SON  CO., 

PUBLISHERS, 

LYNN,  MASS.,  U.  S.  A. 
WM.  WESLEY  &  SON,  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 


Copyright,  1913 

by 
W.  L.  WEBB. 


DEDICATED  TO  THE  MEMORY 

OF 

SIR  WILLIAM  MUGGINS. 

THE  HERSCHEL  OF  THE  SPECTROSCOPE," 

FOUNDER  OF  THE  NEW  SCIENCE  OF  ASTROPHYSICS, 

EX-PRESIDENT  OF  THE  ROYAL  SOCIETY, 

STEADFAST  FRIEND  OF  PROFESSOR  SEE, 

AND 

ONE  OF  THE  EARLIEST  TO  RECOGNIZE  HIS  HIGH  PROMISE 
FOR  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  NEW  TRUTH. 


iii 


770640 


CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTION        .        .       ...       .       .       .       .       .       .  vii 

SKETCH  OF  PROFESSOR  SEE'S  BIOGRAPHY     .       .       •     . . .       .       .          xi 

CHAPTER  I. 
ANCESTRY  AND  CHILDHOOD.    1866-1872 1 

CHAPTER  II. 
BOYHOOD  AND  EDUCATION  PREPARATORY  TO  COLLEGE.    1872-1884    .  14 

CHAPTER  III. 
FIVE  YEARS  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI.    1884-1889       ,       .  28 

CHAPTER  IV. 
THREE  AND  A  HALF  YEARS  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  BERLIN.    1889-1892  44 

CHAPTER  V. 
FOUR  YEARS  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO.    1893-1896       .       .  53 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Two  YEARS  AT  THE  LOWELL  OBSERVATORY.    1896-1898    ...  62 

CHAPTER  VII. 
THREE  AND  A  HALF  YEARS  AT  THE  NAVAL  OBSERVATORY,  WASHINGTON. 

1899-1902 71 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
AT  THE  NAVAL  ACADEMY  AND  MARE  ISLAND,  CALIFORNIA.    1902-1913  78 

CHAPTER  IX. 
POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  RESEARCHES  ON  THE  INTERNAL  CONSTITUTION 

OF  THE  SUN  AND  THE  PLANETS.    1904-1906        ....  89 

V 


Vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  X. 
OUTLINE  OF  THE  NEW  THEORY  OF  EARTHQUAKES.    1906-1908  .       .  97 

CHAPTER  XL 
How  THE  MOUNTAINS  WERE  MADE  IN  THE  DEPTHS  OF  THE  SEA.    1908        120 

CHAPTER  XII. 

FURTHER  CONSIDERATIONS  ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  HIMALAYA  MOUN- 
TAINS AND  THE  PLATEAU  OF  TIBET.  1913  ....  137 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS.    1911  .        .        .          160 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
THE  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  DEPTH  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY.    1912     .         197 

CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  HERSCHEL-SEE  RESEARCHES  ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  CLUSTERS  AND  ON 
THE  BREAKING  UP  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY,  UNDER  THE  CLUSTERING 
POWER  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION 214 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
CONCLUSIONS  DRAWN  FROM  THE  NEW  SCIENCE  OF  COSMOGONY.    1912         225 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  REVOLUTIONARY  CHARACTER  OF  THE  NEW  THEORIES,  AND  THEIR 

TRIUMPHANT  VERIFICATION  BY  EMINENT  ASTRONOMERS       .       .         242 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

'  THIS   MOST  INDEFATIGABLE   AND  INTREPID  OF  EXPLORERS,'  'THE 

AMERICAN  HERSCHEL,'  AND  'THE  NEWTON  OF  COSMOGONY.'       .         257 

APPENDIX. 

NOTES  ON  SOME  EARLY  PROPHECIES  AND  ON  THE  PUBLIC  BANQUET 
TENDERED  DR.  SEE  BY  THE  SCIENCE  ASSOCIATION  OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI,  JANUARY  20,  1898  ....  275 

INDEX  OF  NAMES.  281 


INTRODUCTION. 

most  eminent  philosophers  occasionally  establish  new 
foundations  for  the  individual  physical  sciences.  But,  so 
far  as  we  are  aware,  history  presents  no  previous  record  of 
one  man  revolutionizing  and  laying  new  foundations  for  two  great 
physical  Sciences.  And  yet  this  unprecedented  achievement  has 
been  accomplished  by  Professor  See,  an  American  just  in  the  prime 
of  life. 

The  two  New  Sciences  which  he  has  established  are: 

COSMOGONY,  dealing  with  the  Creation  of  the  Heavens; 
GEOGONY,  which  treats  of  the  Creation  of  the  Earth. 

The  New  Sciences  are  as  distinct  and  clearly  defined  as  the 
problems  of  the  development  of  the  Heavens  and  of  the  Earth, 
respectively;  and  taken  together  they  unfold  the  majestic  pano- 
rama of  the  Creation  of  the  entire  Universe.  There  is  thus 
opened  to  the  mind  a  vision  almost  divine! 

The  marvelous  story  of  how  these  unparalleled  discoveries 
were  made  by  a  young  man  of  penetrating  intuition  and  steady 
purpose,  working  independently,  and  thus  absolutely  free  of  en- 
tangling alliances,  without  other  than  his  own  moderate  means, 
in  an  age  characterized  by  increasing  restriction  of  individual 
freedom  incident  to  growing  centralization  and  vast  expenditure, 
ostensibly  for  scientific  investigation,  cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest 
to  a  great  and  increasing  circle  of  readers  in  both  hemispheres. 

It  is  often  lamented  that  the  simple  life  and  individual  inde- 
pendence enjoyed  by  the  pioneer  investigator  is  passing  away  with 
the  complexity  arising  from  the  centralizing  consolidations  of 

vii 


Viii  INTRODUCTORY 

modern  industrialism,  by  which  the  individual  is  reduced  to  a 
mere  cog  in  the  wheel  of  a  vast  machine. 

It  is  therefore  very  reassuring  to  have  a  concrete  proof,  in 
Professor  See's  discoveries,  that  the  time  will  never  come  when  IN- 
DIVIDUAL INDEPENDENCE  AND  FREE  INITIATIVE,  which  character- 
ized the  philosophic  habits  of  Aristotle  and  Plato,  will  not  bear  fruit 
in  the  modern,  as  in  the  ancient,  world.  Indeed  the  failure  of  many 
contemporary  Scientific  Institutions  is  due  to  disregard  of  the 
mature  and  wholesome  truths  taught  and  practiced  by  the  wisest 
of  the  Athenian  Sages. 

We  are  thus  impressed  with  the  wholesome  doctrine  that 
great  discoveries  cannot  be  made  by  the  methods  of  the  factory, 
the  counting-house  and  the  department-store,  which  have  well- 
nigh  destroyed  the  creative  efficiency  of  some  of  our  most  liberally 
endowed  and  best  supported  scientific  institutions. 

Professor  See  is  universally  recognized  as  the  most  intrepid 
and  indefatigable  of  the  explorers  of  Nature;  and  since  the  death 
of  Poincare  and  Sir  George  Darwin,  in  1912,  occupies  easily  the 
first  place  among  living  natural  philosophers.  These  eminent  men 
were  in  fact  mathematicians  rather  than  investigators  of  the 
physical  universe;  and  thus  were  not  so  careful  in  their  premises 
as  is  usual  with  discoverers  of  the  first  order. 

In  vain  does  the  mathematician  strive  after  the  laws  for 
the  unfolding  of  the  mysteries  of  the  universe,  so  long  as  the 
premises  underlying  his  reasoning  are  insecure.  It  is  one  of 
Professor  See's  greatest  services  to  Science  to  have  emphasized 
impressively  this  great  weakness  in  much  of  our  contemporary 
thought;  and  the  lesson  thus  taught  can  not  be  read  too  often 
by  those  who  are  interested  in  the  progress  of  Truth. 

I  first  came  into  close  relations  with  Professor  See  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ago,  while  serving  with  Hon.  Champ  Clark  on  the 


INTRODUCTORY  ix 

Legislative  Committee  for  the  Investigation  of  the  University  of 
Missouri.  The  student  then  foremost  in  the  University  has  now 
become  foremost  among  men  of  Science;  and  naturally  I  have 
followed  his  triumphant  career  with  pride  and  unabated  enthusi- 
asm. 

While  preparing  a  biography  of  Hon.  Champ  Clark,  Speaker 
of  the  National  House  of  Representatives,  in  1911,  I  decided  to 
undertake  the  more  ambitious  work  of  popularizing  the  discover- 
ies of  Professor  See.  Several  learned  colleagues  of  this  eminent 
savant,  in  Missouri  and  elsewhere,  have  helped  to  lighten  the 
burden  thus  assumed.  It  was  further  decreased  by  Professor 
See's  kindness  in  granting  permission  to  reprint  several  articles 
and  addresses  of  great  interest,  including  the  paper  on  the  Origin 
of  the  Himalaya  Mountains  presented  to  the  American  Philosoph- 
ical Society  in  April,  1913.  Grateful  acknowledgments  are 
due  for  priviliges  of  reprinting  extended  by  this  illustrious 
Society. 

I  am  especially  indebted  to  Professor  L.  M.  Defoe  and  Pro- 
fessor Harris  Hancock,  close  friends  of  Professor  See  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri  and  the  University  of  Berlin,  respectively;  and 
to  the  Historical  Society  of  Montgomery  County,  Missouri,  for 
the  loan  of  a  copy  of  the  "  Records  of  the  See  Family  of  Virginia," 
which  furnishes  authentic  genealogical  data  dating  back  to  1734, 
when  the  early  members  of  this  Family  came  to  America  from 
Prussian  Silesia. 

W.  L.  WEBB. 

INDEPENDENCE,  MISSOURI, 
June  6,  1913. 


SKETCH  OF  PROFESSOR  SEE'S  BIOGRAPHY. 
(From  Who's  Who  in  America,  1912.) 

EE,  THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON,  astronomer, 
mathematician;  born  near  Montgomery  City,  Mo.,  Feb.  19, 
1866;  son  of  Noah  and  Mary  Ann  (Sailor)  See;  A.  B.,  L.B., 
S.B.,  University  of  Missouri,  1889;  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  University  of 
Berlin,  1892;  married  Frances  Graves  of  Montgomery  City,  June 
18,  1907.  In  charge  Observatory  of  University  of  Missouri, 
1887-9;  volunteer  observer  Royal  Observatory,  Berlin,  1891; 
traveled  in  Italy,  Egypt,  Greece,  Germany  and  England,  1890-2; 
organized  and  had  charge  of  Department  of  Astronomy,  and  aided 
in  organization  of  Yerkes  Observatory,  University  of  Chicago, 
1893-6;  astronomer  Lowell  Observatory  in  charge  Survey  of 
Southern  heavens,  1896-8;  with  24-inch  Clark  refractor  at  Flag- 
staff, Arizona,  and  City  of  Mexico,  examined  about  200,000  fixed 
stars,  in  zone  between  15  and  65  degrees  south  declination,  which 
led  to  discovery  and  measurement  of  about  600  new  double  stars 
and  remeasurement  of  some  1,400  double  stars  previously  recog- 
nized by  Sir  John  Herschel  and  other  observers.  Professor  of 
Mathematics,  U.S.  Navy,  since  1899;  in  charge  26-inch  equatorial 
telescope,  U.S.  Naval  Observatory,  1899-1902;  Professor  of  Math- 
ematics, U.S.  Naval  Academy,  1902-3;  Naval  Observatory,  Mare 
Island,  California,  since  1903;  lecturer  on  Sidereal  Astronomy, 
Lowell  Institute,  Boston,  1899.  During  1901-2  investigated 
diameters  of  planets  and  satellites  by  daylight,  deducing  their 
constants  of  irradiation  and  absolute  densities.  Published  re- 
searches on  Laplace's  Invariable  Plane,  and  on  the  internal  densi- 
ties, pressures,  temperatures,  rigidities,  and  moments  of  inertia 
of  the  principal  bodies  of  the  planetary  system,  1903-6.  Observed 
earthquake  at  San  Francisco,  April  18,  1906,  and  proved  that 
world-shaking  earthquakes  and  mountain  formation  depend  on 
leakage  of  oceans  and  expulsion  of  lava,  producing  great  wall  along 

xi 


Xii  SKETCH  OF  PROFESSORS  SEE'S  BIOGRAPHY. 

margin  of  sea,  as  in  typical  case  of  the  Andes.  During  1908-9 
established  laws  of  the  Formation  of  the  Solar  System,  showing 
that  the  planets  and  satellites  were  not  detached  from  the  bodies 
which  now  govern  their  motions,  as  supposed  by  Laplace,  but  have 
all  been  captured,  and  have  since  had  their  orbits  reduced  in  size 
and  rounded  up  into  almost  perfect  circles  under  the  secular  action 
of  a  resisting  medium.  The  moon  is  thus  shown  to  be  a  planet 
captured  by  the  earth,  and  not  a  detached  portion  of  the  terres- 
trial globe,  as  held  by  Sir  George  Darwin  and  earlier  investigators. 
Carried  out  also  important  researches  on  the  eclipses  of  the  past 
3,000  years,  and  the  moon's  secular  acceleration,  the  rotation  of 
the  earth  and  other  planets,  the  formation  of  lunar  craters,  origin 
of  comets,  cause  of  variable  and  temporary  stars,  thus  founding  a 
new  science  of  cosmogony,  since  adopted  by  Poincare  and  other 
eminent  authorities.  During  1911  investigated  the  depth  of  the 
Milky  Way,  improving  and  extending  the  forgotten  methods  of 
Sir  William  Herschel,  and  showed  that  this  depth  is  several  million 
light-years,  and  thus  about  a  thousand  times  greater  than  astron- 
omers have  recently  believed.  This  confirmation  of  the  neglect- 
ed theories  of  Sir  Wm.  Herschel  led  to  a  movement  for  the  republi- 
cation  of  his  collected  works  by  the  Royal  Astronomical  and  Royal 
Society  of  London.  Has  computed  about  sixty  orbits  of  double 
stars.  Fellow  or  member  of  many  scientific  societies  in  United 
States  and  abroad.  Author:  Die  Entwickelung  der  Doppel-Stern 
Systeme,  Berlin,  1893;  Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Stellar 
Systems,  Vol.  I,  Lynn,  1896;  Vol.  II,  The  Capture  Theory  of 
Cosmical  Evolution,  1910;  Researches  on  the  Physical  Constitu- 
tion and  Rigidities  of  the  Heavenly  Bodies,  Kiel,  1904-6;  Re- 
searches on  the  Physics  of  the  Earth,  and  especially  on  the  Cause 
of  Earthquakes  and  Mountain  Formation,  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc., 
Philadelphia,  1906-8;  Determination  of  Depth  of  the  Milky  Way, 
Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  1912.  Also  double  star  catalogues  and  about 
250  contributions  to  technical  journals  and  magazines.  Address: 
Mare  Island,  California. 


CHAPTER  I. 
1866-1872. 

ANCESTRY  AND  CHILDHOOD. 

SPECULATED    ON    THE  SUN,    MOON  AND    STARS  WHEN    ONLY    TWO 

YEARS  OLD. 


nature  of  genius  always  has  been  deeply  mysterious,  and 
heretofore  philosophers  have  labored  in  vain  to  account  for 
its  appearance.  It  seems  to  be  an  accentuation  of  the  usual  en- 
dowments of  the  individual,  combined  with  a  power  of  concentra- 
tion which  produces  the  maximum  efficiency,  and  doubtless  is  an 
extraordinary  gift  of  Nature  designed  for  the  protection  and 
improvement  of  the  race.  At  least  this  is  the  purpose  which 
genius  serves  in  the  economy  of  the  world. 

But  as  genius  is  the  culmination  of  the  more  normal  creative 
effort,  and  appears  only  under  favorable  conditions,  we  may  re- 
mark that  to  understand  the  forces  that  produce  a  great  man  one 
has  to  look  into  the  environment  of  his  individual  life,  and  also 
examine  the  ancestry  of  his  family.  Taken  together  these  two 
influences,  in  some  mysterious  way,  determine  the  mental  and 
bodily  powers  and  tendencies,  always  a  very  important  factor  in 
those  labors  which  make  for  high  achievement.  It  takes  genera- 
tions of  good  stock  to  produce  the  best  type  of  man,  just  as  it 
does  to  produce  the  best  types  in  the  rest  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

For  although  it  is  a  recognized  maxim  of  the  most  eminent 
historians,  as  Thucydides  and  Tacitus,  Gibbon  and  Grote,  Ranke 
and  Niebuhr,  Mommsen  and  Curtius,  that  the  importance  of  an- 
cestry often  is  overrated,  yet  the  Southern  saying  that  "blood 
will  tell"  holds  true  in  our  History;  and  nowhere  is  this  steadying 
influence  more  effective  than  in  the  persistence  required  for  the 
higher  intellectual  life.  To  develop  the  noblest  products  of  the 


2  .  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

human  mind,  such  as  discoveries  which  lay  the  foundations  of 
new  sciences,  the  forces  must  all  be  strong  and  well  balanced  and 
the  mental  intuition  clear  and  penetrating.  When  these  con- 
ditions are  favorable  Nature  occasionally  supplements  her  ordinary 
creative  efforts  by  examples  of  the  extraordinary  type  called  genius. 

Needless  to  say  the  ancestry  of  Professor  See  is  of  the  sturdiest 
kind,  and  marked  by  great  strength  of  character  for  many  genera- 
tions, on  both  sides  of  the  family.  His  talents  have  been  very 
largrly  inherited,  but  they  are  also  original  gifts  of  Nature,  which 
have  been  developed  by  industry  and  favorable  environment. 

The  earliest  American  ancestor  by  this  name  was  Adam  See, 
a  Protestant  and  an  adherent  of  a  sect  of  Baptists,  who  fled  from 
Prussian  Silesia,  with  the  colony  of  Schwenkf elders  in  1734*, 
and  settled  first  in  Bucks  Co.,  Penn.  Adam  See's  wife  was  named 
Barbara,  and  he  had  an  elder  brother,  Michael  Frederick  See, 
whose  wife's  name  was  Catherine.  They  were  all  quite  young 
at  the  time  of  the  immigration  from  Germany,  to  escape  from 
religious  persecutions! ;  and  the  Adam  See  family  continued  to 
use  German  Bibles  to  the  third  generation. 


*  This  was  the  same  year  in  which  the  Moravian  Evangelists  first  came  to 
Pennsylvania,  but  their  first  temporary  settlement  and  mission  to  the  Indians  was 
at  Savannah,  Ga.,  1735.  In  1740  these  Moravians  moved  to  Pennsylvania,  and 
with  Count  Zinzendorf  and  others  from  Herrnhut,  Saxony,  founded  Bethlehem, 
1741. 

tThe  persecution  under  which  the  Schwenkfelders  fled  from  Prussian  Silesia 
is  described  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  ninth  edition,  Article  Schwenkf  eld,  as 
follows:  "In  Silesia  they  formed  a  distinct  sect,  which  has  lasted  until  our  own 
times.  In  the  17th  Century  they  were  associated  with  the  followers  of  Jacob 
Bohme,  and  were  undisturbed  until  1708,  when  an  inquiry  was  made  as  to  their 
doctrines.  In  1720  a  Commission  of  Jesuits  was  despatched  to  Silesia  to  convert 
them  by  force.  Most  of  them  fled  from  Silesia  to  Saxony,  and  thence  to  Holland, 
England  and  North  America.  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  when  he  seized 
Silesia,  extended  his  protection  to  those  who  remained  in  that  province.  Those 
who  had  fled  to  Philadelphia  in  Pennsylvania  formed  a  small  community  under 
the  name  of  Schwenkfeldians;  and  Zinzendorf  and  Spangenberg,  when  they 
visited  the  United  States,  endeavoured,  but  with  little  success,  to  convert  them 
to  their  views.  This  Community  still  exists  in  Pennsylvania,  and  according  to 
information  obtained  from  their  ministers  by  Robert  Barclay  they  consisted 
in  1875  of  two  congregations  of  500  members,  with  three  meeting  houses  and  six 
.ministers." 


THE  RETURN  OF  THE  GREENBRIER  CAPTIVES,  AFTER  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE 

FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WARS,  1765. 

(From  an  old  History). 


HON.  CHARLES  MICHAEL  SEE. 

One  of  the  most  widely  known  and  highly  respected  citizens  of  Central  Illinois.  Mr.  See 
has  a  notable  record  in  the  Union  Army,  1861-65;  and  a  remarkable  service  of  40  years  as  Station 
Agent  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  at  Alma.  He  took  up  the  study  of  the  Family  History, 
about  1880.  at  the  suggestion  of  Judge  Silas  Bryan,  who  had  long  known  the  Sees  in  Virginia. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.   J.   SEE  3 

In  1745  they  moved  from  Pennsylvania  to  the  Valley  of 
Virginia,  and  settled  near  the  present  town  of  Moorefield,  in  Hardy 
County.  Here  Adam  See  became  a  prominent  planter,  and  lived 
till  about  1790.  About  1760,  his  elder  brother  and  family  moved 
on  to  Greenbrier  settlement,  where  he  was  killed  in  the  Indian 
massacre  of  July  17,  1763,  and  the  family,  consisting  of  wife  and 
four  children,  carried  captive  to  Old  Town  (Chillicothe),  Ohio. 
After  the  treaty  of  peace,  at  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian 
Wars  of  1765,  they  were  all  restored  to  their  people,  except  John 
See,  a  child  of  seven,  who  had  been  adopted  in  an  Indian  family, 
and,  as  the  captives  were  leaving,  ran  back  and  stayed  with 
the  Indians,  till  ransomed  by  his  Uncle  Adam  See  some  years 
later. 

John  See  then  grew  up  with  his  Uncle  Adam's  son  George 
See,  and  both  fought  in  the  Revolution,  John  being  so  badly 
wounded  at  Brandywine  that  he  was  pensioned  by  the  government 
in  old  age.  He  lived  to  be  ninety,  dying  near  Peoria,  111.,  in  1848. 
When  he  was  very  old  he  gave  a  detailed  account  of  the  early 
history  of  the  family  to  his  grandson,  the  Rev.  Michael  See,  of 
Wyman,  Iowa,  who  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Sanitary 
Commission  by  President  Lincoln  during  the  Civil  War.  The 
Rev.  Michael  See  gave  this  account  to  Hon.  Charles  Michael 
See  of  Alma,  111.,  who  took  up  the  study  of  the  family  history  about 
1880,  at  the  suggestion  of  Judge  Silas  Bryan,  father  of  Hon. 
Wm.  J.  Bryan,  and  later  gave  the  data  thus  gathered  to  Hon. 
Noah  See,  father  of  Professor  See;  so  that  all  the  records  are 
authentic  and  preserved  in  enough  detail  to  make  an  interesting 
history. 

Adam  See  seems  to  have  had  a  family  of  one  or  more  daugh- 
ters, and  the  son  George  mentioned  above.  Before  the  Revolu- 
tion, probably  about  1767,  George  See  had  married  Jemima  Har- 
ness, by  whom  he  had  a  family  of  nine  children:  Adam,  Michael, 
George,  Charles,  and  John;  and  the  daughters:  Barbara,  Hannah, 
Elizabeth,  and  Dorothy.  The  history  of  the  family  of  this  gen- 
eration is  fully  kept,  but  most  of  it  need  not  be  given  here. 


4  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

It  suffices  to  say  that  the  second  Adam  See  was  a  student  at 
Dickinson  College,  and  afterwards  became  an  eminent  lawyer,  a 
senator  at  Richmond  during  the  War  of  1812,  and  a  member  of 
the  Virginia  Constitutional  Convention  of  1829. 

His  brother  Michael  See  married  Catherine  Baker,  and  raised 
a  family  of  nine  children,  the  names  of  the  six  sons  being:  Adam, 
Anthony,  Jacob,  John,  Solomon,  and  Noah;  and  of  the  daughters: 
Mary,  Elizabeth,  Barbara.  This  Noah  See,  the  youngest  child, 
and  the  most  talented,  was  the  father  of  Professor  See,  the  sub- 
ject of  this  Biography.  His  grandfather,  George  See,  and  son 
Charles  had  been  killed  by  lightning  while  stacking  hay,  about 
1794;  and  the  two  brothers,  Adam  and  Michael,  with  their  fami- 
lies, then  moved  to  Randolph  County,  Va.,  about  1795,  where 
Noah  See  was  born  September  19,  1815.  Michael  See  served  in 
the  War  of  1812,  while  his  brother  Adam  was  a  Senator  at  Rich- 
mond. 

In  1837  Noah  See  visited  the  West,  traveling  on  horseback 
through  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  and  finally  settled  in  Mont- 
gomery County,  Mo.,  whither  his  father,  mother,  and  three 
brothers  and  two  sisters  soon  followed,  so  that  the  See  family  has 
been  prominent  in  that  part  of  Missouri  for  three  quarters  of  a 
century.  Michael  See  lived  as  a  highly  respected  citizen  of  Mont- 
gomery County  till  his  death  in  1857. 

Noah  See  was  educated  in  the  High  School  at  Beverly,  Vir- 
ginia, and  trained  as  a  cabinet-maker.  He  also  became  an  archi- 
tect and  civil  engineer,  having  built  a  bridge  over  the  Cheat 
River  in  Virginia  before  he  was  twenty-two.  In  these  early  days 
he  also  studied  land  surveying,  which  he  afterwards  followed  as 
a  life-long  profession,  having  been  twice  elected  county  surveyor 
of  Montgomery  County,  and  generally  considered  one  of  the  finest 
surveyors  in  Missouri.  The  profession  of  architect  he  also  kept 
up,  having  built  a  great  many  houses  still  standing  in  Montgomery 
County;  while  his  talents  as  an  engineer  caused  him  to  be  chosen 
as  bridge  commissioner  of  the  county  for  nearly  thirty  years. 
His  conduct  of  these  several  offices  was  always  marked  by  great 


HON.  NOAH  SEE. 

Professor  See's  Father,  as  he  appeared  when  about  sixty  years  of 
age.  He  was  born  in  Randolph  County,  Virginia,  Sept.  19,  1815,  and  died 
in  Montgomery  County,  Missouri,  Feb.  9,  1890.  Owing  to  his  experience 
as  a  Civil  Engineer,  Surveyor,  and  Architect,  he  served  as  Bridge  Com- 
missioner of  the  County  for  over  3(Tyears. 


MRS.  MARY  A.  SEE. 

Mother  of  Professor  See,  from  a  photograph  taken  in  1899,  when  she  was 
67  years  of  age.  Mrs.  See  was  born  in  Montgomery  County,  Missouri,  Jan.  14, 
1832,  and  has  always  resided  in  the  County. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  5 

fidelity  to  the  interests  of  the  community.  By  virtue  of  natural 
abilities  and  strictly  legitimate  industry  he  became  wealthy  and 
influential,  and  for  fifty-two  years  was  one  of  the  most  highly 
respected  citizens  in  the  county. 

On  October  18,  1853,  Noah  See  married  Miss  Mary  A.  Sailor, 
daughter  of  James  and  Sabina  (Cobb)  Sailor.  The  Sailors  were 
a  highly  respected  family  which  came  from  near  Mt.  Sterling, 
Montgomery  County,  Kentucky*,  but  were  originally  from  Vir- 
ginia. The  earliest  American  ancestor  by  this  name,  John  Sailor, 
born  about  1750,  was  an  Englishman,  who  settled  in  Virginia 
about  1772,  and  afterwards  fought  in  the  Revolution.  He  moved 
to  Montgomery  County,  Ky.,  about  1790,  and  resided  near  Jack- 
son's Mill,  on  the  Licking  River,  being  by  profession  a  skilled 
machinist.  He  had  a  family  of  six  children  —  five  sons:  John, 
Emanuel,  Mathias,  Jacob,  and  William,  and  the  daughter  Sarah, 
who  married  Samuel  Cobb,  a  brother  of  Phillip  Cobb.  His  second 
son,  Emanuel  Sailor,  with  his  wife  and  family  of  three  sons,  James, 
John  and  Thomas,  settled  in  Montgomery  County,  Mo.,  in  1824, 
and  their  descendants  have  always  been  highly  respected  citizens 
of  that  part  of  Missouri.  Emanuel  Sailor's  wife,  at  the  time  of 
their  marriage,  was  a  widow,  her  first  husband  having  been  Dr. 
James  Geary,  of  Ohio,  and  her  maiden  name  Ann  Hollett,  of  New 
York  City. 

Mrs.  Noah  See,  mother  of  the  famous  astronomer,  still  lives 
at  the  old  home  near  Montgomery  City,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  women  in  the  United  States.  The  family  consisted 
of  nine  children,  of  whom  eight  are  still  living,  one  daughter 
having  died  in  childhood.  Mrs.  See  has  long  been  noted  for  her 
devotion  to  the  family,  and  for  her  energy  and  force  of  character. 
She  has  always  been  greatly  beloved  by  the  whole  community, 
as  such  model  mothers  usually  are.  The  names  of  the  children 
in  order  of  age  are:  Anna  Maria,  Millard  Filmore,  Missouri 
Virginia,  Robert  E.  Lee,  Lucy  Elizabeth  (died  at  age  of  two  and 

*  The  State  of  Missouri  was  settled  by  Virginians  and  Kentuckians,  and  Pro- 
fessor See  therefore  is  a  typical  Missourian  in  every  sense. 


6  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

half  years),  Thomas  Jefferson  Jackson*,  George  Washington, 
Sylvester  Clay,  Edward  Everett. 

From  this  list  it  will  be  seen  that  the  astronomer  is  the  sixth 
child  and  third  son  in  a  family  of  nine,  all  of  whom  are  talented. 
All  the  boys  were  raised  as  farmers,  and  most  of  them  have  ad- 
hered to  the  family  tradition.  Three  of  Professor  See's  brothers, 
namely,  M.  F.  See,  Geo.  W.  See,  and  E.  E.  See  have  decided 
scientific  tastes,  however,  and  could  have  become  eminent  pro- 
fessional men;  while  the  eldest  sister,  Anna  Maria  (Mrs.  A.  M. 
Weeks)  has  extremely  varied  talent.  The  other  living  sister, 
Missouri  Virginia  (Mrs.  S.  T.  Weeks)  has  the  domestic  taste  of 
her  mother  and  has  raised  a  family  of  nine  children.  Robert  E. 
Lee  See  is  a  farmer  and  land  surveyor;  while  S.  C.  See  is  one  of 
the  best  and  most  prosperous  farmers  in  Montgomery  County. 
The  little  sister  Lucy  Elizabeth,  who  died  in  childhood,  was  very 
talented,  and  already  showed  a  remarkable  sense  for  music. 

As  a  further  account  of  Professor  See's  brothers  it  may  be 
stated: 

1.  That  the  eldest,  Millard  Filmore,  is  a  great  reader  of 
scientific  literature,  having  made  a  careful  study  of  such  celebrated 
philosophers  as  Darwin,  Spencer,  Haeckel,  Huxley,  John  Stuart 
Mill;  and  of  late  years  has  given  much  attention  to  astronomy 
and  cosmogony,  along  the  lines  marked  out  in  Professor  See's 
' ' Researches. ' '  His  mind  is  noted  for  its  scientific  turn,  and  he  has 
practical  talent  as  a  builder,  and  inventor  of  mechanical  appli- 
ances. Moreover  he  is  well  read  in  law  and  public  administration. 
His  son,  Russell  See,  is  a  distinguished  graduate  of  the  Missouri 
University,  and  now  a  civil  engineer  in  the  U.S.  Reclamation  Service- 

*  Originally  named  in  honor  of  the  famous  Confederate  General  Stonewall 
Jackson,  but  as  the  name  Jonathan  in  the  General's  name  did  not  seem  the  most 
suitable,  it  was  replaced  by  Jefferson  and  the  new  name  then  considered  as  repre- 
senting three  celebrated  men:  Thomas  in  honor  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  Jefferson, 
in  honor  of  Jefferson  Davis  and  Jackson  in  honor  of  Stonewall  Jackson.  Professor 
Newcomb  once  remarked  to  Professor  See  in  Washington  that  his  father  must 
have  been  a  great  admirer  of  American  history  to  have  given  him  such  a  distin- 
guished name. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  7 

2.  The  intellectual  tastes  of  George  W.  See  are  about  equally 
pronounced.    He  made  a  good  record  at  the  Missouri  State  Uni- 
versity, including  a  year  in  the  Law  School;  and  has  been  quite 
active  in  public  affairs.     In  1898  he  represented  Montgomery 
County  in  the  State  Legislature,  and  served  on  important  com- 
mittees.   He  has  long  been  a  warm  friend  and  trusted  adviser  of 
Speaker  Champ  Clark;  and  in  1912  was  designated  by  the  State 
Central  Committee  a  Presidential  Elector  at  Large  on  the  Demo- 
cratic Ticket,  to  fill  a  vacancy,  but  did  not  serve,  owing  to  subse- 
quent ruling  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  sustaining  the  claims  of 
the  first  nominee,  whose  legal  right  to  act  as  Elector  was  in  doubt. 

3.  The  youngest  brother,  E.  E.  See,  was  a  promising  student 
at  the  Missouri  State  University,  and  made  notable  progress  in 
biology,  under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Howard  Ayers;  and  his  subse- 
quent studies  have  included  geology,  astronomy  and  cosmogony. 
All  of  Professor  See's  brothers  take  a  deep  interest  in  his  dis- 
coveries, and  Edward  also  has  artistic  talent. 

Missouri  Virginia's  husband,  Judge  S.  T.  Weeks,  was  a  man 
of  high  standing  and  liberal  attainments.  He  was  elected  county 
Judge  of  Callaway  County,  and  afterwards  State  Senator;  and 
aided  in  important  legislation  looking  to  the  betterment  of  the 
State.  The  offices  which  he  held  came  to  him  quite  unsought. 
While  Senator  he  was  a  trusted  advisor  of  Governor  Francis,  whose 
administration  is  reckoned  among  the  best  in  the  history  of 
Missouri. 

Before  dismissing  the  subject,  it  may  be  remarked  that  Pro- 
fessor See's  Uncle,  Jacob  See,  was  in  his  time  also  a  leading  citizen 
of  Montgomery  County.  He  was  elected  sheriff,  and  afterwards 
represented  the  county  in  the  Legislature,  during  the  session  of 
1876-7.  But  his  greatest  fame  was  won  as  a  raiser  of  fine  stock. 
The  celebrated  ox,  " Stonewall  Jackson,"  weighed  4,300  pounds, 
and  was  by  far  the  largest  animal  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  This 
mammoth  ox  was  exhibited  in  many  cities  of  the  Union,  and 
finally  taken  to  the  Centennial  at  Philadelphia,  where  it  was 
crippled  and  died. 


8  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Jacob  See's  son,  Randolph  E.,  was  twice  elected  sheriff  of 
Montgomery  County,  and  later  was  appointed  marshal  of  the 
Supreme  Court  at  Jefferson  City.  Under  Governor  Folk,  Rand- 
dolph  See  became  chief  assistant  warden  of  the  Penitentiary, 
where  he  rendered  such  eminent  services,  on  the  occasion  of  an 
outbreak  of  the  prisoners,  that  his  widow  was  voted  the  sum  of 
$2,000.  by  the  Legislature,  in  recognition  of  bravery  which 
shortened  his  life,  owing  to  the  extreme  exertions  then  made  in 
the  discharge  of  his  duties  to  the  State.  His  death  soon  after  this 
heroic  conduct  was  viewed  as  a  public  calamity. 

From  these  indications  it  will  be  seen  that  the  prominence 
attained  by  the  See  family  in  Virginia  was  not  temporary,  but 
has  been  much  increased  in  Missouri  during  successive  generations, 
and  in  several  branches. 

Returning  now  to  the  subject  of  this  biography  we  notice 
that  Professor  See  was  born  at  the  "Prairie  Place,"  a  large  farm  of 
some  six  hundred  acres,  three  miles  northwest  of  Montgomery  City, 
Mo.,  Feb.  19, 1866.  This  was  just  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War, 
and  when  the  terrible  days  of  test  oaths  and  reconstruction  were 
coming  on.  During  that  fearful  conflict,  Noah  See  was  an  outspoken 
Southern  sympathizer,  and  was  persecuted  accordingly.  \  He  had 
owned  two  or  three  slaves  before  the  war  broke  out,  but  they  were  well 
treated  and  remained  faithful  to  their  old  master  during  these  terri- 
ble times,  and  continued  to  live  near  him  after  the  close  of  the  war. 

Having  a  growing  family  of  small  children,  Noah  See  could 
not  well  leave  them  when  the  country  was  so  overrun  with  maraud- 
ers, who  carried  away  live  stock  and  provisions  and  pretty  much 
everything  in  sight,  and  often  burned  houses  and  towns,  and  com- 
mitted many  cold  blooded  murders.  Thus  Mr.  Hamp  Logan,  an 
innocent  and  unoffending  young  man,  was  killed  by  licentious 
and  drunken  soldiers  within  a  mile  of  Noah  See's  home.  By  these 
depredations  Mr.  See  lost  property  during  the  war  worth  at  least 
sixteen  hundred  dollars. 

Much  of  the  time  he  had  to  keep  in  hiding,  to  come  to  his 
family  in  time  of  need,  and  to  provide  for  the  devoted  wife  and 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.   J.   SEE  9 

children.  For  two  or  three  years,  at  times  of  greatest  danger, 
he  camped  in  the  creek  bottoms,  often  sleeping  in  caves,  or  in 
ravines  or  hollows,  with  nothing  but  a  low  canvas  over  his  head 
as  a  shelter  against  the  wind  and  snow. 

First  one  set  of  raiders  would  come,  and  then  another.  On 
two  or  three  occasions  he  narrowly  escaped  capture  at  the  hands 
of  desperate  and  drunken  soldiery.  Finally  he  was  captured  unex- 
pectedly, and  detained  as  military  prisoner  in  Danville,  where 
he  worked  as  carpenter,  building  the  block  house  which  was  used 
as  a  fort  by  the  Federal  troops.  He  always  had  good  friends 
among  the  Union  sympathizers,  and  they  secured  his  safety.  After 
some  months  he  escaped  and  ran  away,  while  the  guard  was  inat- 
tentive, but  was  again  apprehended,  though  not  long  detained; 
and  he  was  then  allowed  to  remain  at  liberty,  as  one  of  the  inof- 
fending  Southerners.] 

Noah  See  had  in  fact  never  taken  any  part  in  the  war,  and 
was  persecuted  by  a  few  envious  individuals  of  the  community 
just  because  he  was  prosperous  and  well-to-do.  Those  who  were 
trifling  and  penniless  made  the  war  a  pretext  to  spy  on  their  pros- 
perous neighbors,  and  aid  in  parceling  out  their  property.  It  was 
just  such  lawlessness  as  this  that  ruined  the  Federal  cause  in 
the  eyes  of  the  best  citizens  of  Montgomery  County.  The  town 
of  Danville  lost  standing  in  this  way,  and  after  it  was  burned 
during  the  war  never  recovered.  As  a  law-abiding  and  peaceful 
citizen,  persecuted  and  thus  compelled  to  camp  out  during  the 
war,  much  like  Daniel  Boone,  in  his  conflicts  with  the  Indians, 
Noah  See  has  related  that  he  used  to  lie  awake  at  night,  with 
nothing  but  the  stars  overhead,  and  wonder  if  there  could  be  a 
God  governing  the  world,  who  would  permit  the  triumph  of  such 
injustice  and  wickedness.  Few  men  ever  went  through  a  more 
trying  experience  than  the  future  father  of  the  famous  astrono- 
mer, who  was  destined  to  be  born  a  year  after  the  close  of  the 
war. 

It  is  worth  recording  in  this  connection,  thatj  Mrs.  Noah  See, 
while  her  husband  was  in  seclusion,  or  detained  under  military 


10  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

guard  in  Danville,  was  under  the  necessity  of  managing  the  farm 
as  well  as  the  household,  and  with  very  little  help.  A  part  of 
the  time  her  younger  brother,  John  T.  Sailor,  then  a  boy  of  twelve 
or  fourteen,  helped  her  about  the  place,  and  around  the  house. 
But  oftentimes  the  militia  would  come  at  night  in  their  search 
for  firearms,  and  stay  so  long,  by  the  comfortable  fire,  that  they 
would  burn  up  all  the  wood  in  the  house,  and  leave  none  for  use 
next  morning. 

They  stole  and  carried  away  flour,  bacon,  lard,  sugar,  coffee, 
live  stock,  hay,  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs,  as  well  as  horses  and  mules. 
On  one  occasion  they  tried  to  kill  one  of  the  only  yoke  of  oxen  on 
the  place,  wanting  to  shoot  the  ox  while  yoked  to  the  feed  wagon. 
But  Mrs.  See  was  brave  as  a  lion,  and  emphatically  ordered  them 
off  the  place,  using  very  strong  language  in  laying  down  the  law. 
As  she  got  between  their  guns  and  the  ox,  and  simply  would  not 
yield,  they  finally  desisted,  and  went  elsewhere  for  beef. 

During  several  of  the  winters  of  the  war  the  snow  was  very 
deep,  and  the  cold  intense;  yet  Mrs.  See  herself  had  to  yoke  the 
oxen  and  attend  to  the  feeding,  besides^aring  for  a  family  of  five 
children,  several  of  them  quite  small./  If  ever  a  woman  deserved 
a  place  in  Missouri  history  it  is  Mrs.  Mary  A.  See,  the  mother  of 
the  great  astronomer.  No  heroine  of  the  American  Revolution 
ever  went  through  more  trying  experiences  than  this  noble  and 
good  woman.  , 

It  was  from  such  sturdy  stock,  tested  in  the  crucible  of  bitter 
experience  during  the  war,  that  the  future  illustrious  scientist 
was  to  be  born.  And  strange  to  say,  he  first  saw  the  light  on  the 
birthday  of  Copernicus  (1473-1543),  the  founder  of  modern  as- 
tronomy, Feb.  19,  1866.  This  date  of  birth  might  be  an  accident, 
but  the  believers  in  astrology  will  find  in  the  career  of  Professor 
See  and  his  revolutionary  work  in  astronomy  so  much  to  remind 
them  of  his  great  predecessor,  as  to  cause  many  to  think  that  after 
all  our  destinies  are  shaped  by  the  stars  under  which  we  are  born. 

As  a  baby,  the  future  astronomer  was  large  and  vigorous, 
weighing  nearly  ten  pounds.  He  suffered  from  no  important  ill- 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  11 

i  ness  in  childhood,  except  a  croupy  tendency,  which  however  was 
relieved  without  much  difficulty.  He  was  a  quiet  child,  but 
bright  and  inquisitive  as  soon  as  he  developed  to  the  talking  age. 
As  soon  as  he  could  walk  about  the  house,  he  was  fond  of  following^ 
his  mother  around,  and  asking  all  kinds  of  questions,  such  as  why 
do  you  do  this,  and  why  that,  etc. 

It  is  authenticated  that  when  not  more  than  two  years  of  age, 
he  would  count  the  leaves  on  the  trees,  and  the  wild  geese  flying 
in  flocks  overhead;  and  cry  out:  "Geese,  geese!  how  many? 
A  hundred,  or  a  thousand?"  This  showed  a  mind  for  number- 
ing all  things;  and  naturally  it  extended  to  the  stars  lighting 
up  the  sky  at  night.  They  too  had  to  be  counted  before  the 
little  boy  closed  his  eyes  in  sleep.  Nor  was  the  Moon,  as  the 
chief  ornament  of  the  nocturnal  sky,  overlooked.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  was  his  special  pet,  and  he  used  to  debate  whether  it 
could  not  be  brought  down  to  the  earth,  like  a  plate  on  the 
table^ 

•  The  little  boy  of  three  never  dreamed  in  this  happy  childhood 
that  some  day  he  was  to  be  the  one  astronomer  who  could  en- 
lighten the  world  regarding  the  origin  of  the  Moon.  Yet  all  these 
tendencies  in  childhood  marked  the  boy  as  a  born  investigator, 
and  his  questions  ran  all  the  way  from  who  made  the  Sun,  Moon 
and  Stars,  to  who  made  God.  Even  in  childhood  he  was  every 
inch  a  natural  philosopher.] 

On  August  7,  1869,  a"total  eclipse  of  the  Sun  took  place,  the 
path  of  totality  passing  over  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kentucky  and  North 
Carolina.  It  was  so  dark  in  eastern  Missouri  that  the  cows  came 
home,  as  in  the  evening,  lowing  for  the  calves,  while  the  chickens 
went  to  roost,  and  the  cocks  crowed,  as  at  night.  The  little  boy, 
under  the  safe  keeping  of  his  good  mother,  observed  all  this,  and 
it  produced  a  lasting  impression  on  his  childish  mind.  He  went 
out  to  look  at  the  Sun  when  covered  by  the  Moon,  but  finding  it 
almost  as  dark  as  night,  with  only  a  halo  of  rays  about  the  Sun, 
due  to  the  corona,  he  hastened  back  into  the  house  and  hid  under 
the  bed,  till  all  danger  was  passed. 


12  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

r- 

As  a  child,  Professor  See  learned  his  letters  so  early  that  no 
teacher  was  required.  Without  instruction,  he  learned  to  spell, 
probably  from  the  example  of  the  older  children.  He  first  went 
to  a  district  school,  in  a  log  school  house,  where  his  mother  had 
acquired  the  elements  of  her  education  years  before,  ;  This  school 
house  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  picture.  It  had  slabs  for 
seats,  which  were  without  any  backs;  and  was  heated  by  a  fire- 
place, and  thus  as  primitive,  as  in  the  time  of  Andrew  Jackson, 
the  neighborhood  having  undergone  but  little  change  in  the  forty 
years  since  his  mother's  birth,  Jan.  14,  1832.}'  fiut  the  place  was 
safe,  and  in  this  rural  Arcady  the  little  boy  passed  an  ideal  child- 
hood, i 

His  first  teacher  was  Professor  Benjamin  Elliot,  who  still 
lives  in  Montgomery  County,  and  is  naturally  very  proud  of  the 
great  man  now  grown  out  of  the  little  "Tommy"  See  of  six,  who 
came  to  him  to  learn  the  elements  of  reading,  writing  and  arith- 
metic, forty  years  ago. 

In  a  letter  dated  Mineola,  Mo.,  January  8,  1906,  Professor 
Elliott  wrote  Professor  See  regarding  these  early  days  at  school 
as  follows: 

"I  am  in  receipt  of  your  favor  of  recent  date  (regarding  the 
mathematical  researches  on  the  constitution  of  the  Sun),  which  I 
read  with  the  greatest  pleasure.  You  can  not  conceive  the  grati- 
fication it  is  to  me  to  know  of  the  success  you  have  had  in  your 
chosen  field  of  labor.  Well  do  I  remember  the  first  day  that  you 
were  under  my  care  at  school.  The  methodical  manner,  in  which 
you  took  up  the  duties  assigned  to  you,  attracted  my  attention; 
for  even  in  childhood  you  employed  system  in  everything  you  did; 
and  this  led  me  to  conclude,  and  rightly,  that  I  had  found  the  ideal 
boy.  And  I  never  had  the  least  cause  to  change  my  first  impres- 
sion, as  long  as  we  were  together  in  school. 

"I  had  thought  to  give  some  recollections  of  those  days,  but 
there  are  so  many  pleasant  ones  that  present  themselves,  that  to 
write  even  a  small  part  of  them,  would  make  this  letter  too  long. 
There  is  ever  a  warm  place  in  my  heart  for  you,  and  an  earnest 


MR.  BENJAMIN  ELLIOTT. 

Professor  See's  earliest  teacher,  as  he  ap- 
peared when  about  70  years  of  age.  From  a  photo- 
graph taken  in  1906. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  13 

wish  that  you  may  succeed  in  all  your  undertakings;  for  it  seems 
to  me  that  your  success  is  my  success.  I  claim  part  of  it  any- 
way. 

"I  have  no  photograph  at  present, but  shall  have  some  made 
soon,  and  send  you  one.  I  met  your  mother  at  the  Old  Settlers' 
Reunion  last  August,  the  first  time  I  had  seen  her  since  the  family 
moved  from  Loutre.  Was  real  glad  to  meet  her,  as  I  am  to  meet 
any  of  the  old-timers.  Be  sure  to  visit  me  when  you  come  to 
Missouri  next  time." 

Something  in  these  earliest  days  led  little  Tom  See  to  learn 
by  heart  the  familiar  poem: 

"Twinkle,  twinkle,  little  star, 
How  I  wonder  what  you  are, 
Up  above  the  world  so  high, 
Like  a  diamond  in  the  sky. 

"When  the  blazing  sun  is  set, 
And  the  grass  with  dew  is  wet, 
Then  you  show  your  little  light, 
Twinkle,  twinkle,  all  the  night. 

"And  if  I  were  in  the  dark, 
I  would  thank  you  for  your  spark; 
I  could  not  see  which  way  to  go 
If  you  did  not  twinkle  so. 

"And  when  I  am  sound  asleep 
Oft  you  through  my  window  peep, 
For  you  never  shut  your  eye 
Till  the  sun  is  in  the  sky." 

It  was  observed  that  he  had  a  prodigious  memory,  and  he 
used  to  repeat  such  poems  at  play  time,  to  the  delight  of  all  the 
pupils.  Little  did  his  associates  then  imagine  that  the  little  boy 
with  methodical  methods  and  brilliant  memory  was  to  become 
the  greatest  astronomer  in  the  world,  and  one  of  the  greatest  of 
all  time! 


CHAPTER  II. 
1879-1884. 

BOYHOOD  AND  EDUCATION  PREPARATORY  TO  COLLEGE. 

KEEN    INTEREST    IN    SCIENCE   SUPPLEMENTED   BY   ARTISTIC   TASTE 
AND  BY  THE  STUDY  OF  DRAWING  AND  PAINTING. 

EFORE  proceeding  with  the  story  of  Professor  See's  boyhood, 
it  is  advisable  to  dwell  briefly  on  his  father's  activity  at  this 
period.  We  have  already  related  that  Noah  See  was  a  man 
of  remarkably  keen  mind.  He  was  rather  stocky  in  build,  about 
five  feet  eight  inches  in  height,  but  active  as  a  farmer,  builder, 
engineer,  and  surveyor,  till  within  a  few  years  of  his  death  in  1890. 
He  was  a  good  business  man,  and  acquired  in  time  an  independent 
fortune.  He  invested  his  savings  chiefly  in  land,  and  thus  the 
estate  finally  included  some  eight  thousand  acres.  Accordingly 
in  the  latter  years  of  his  life  Noah  See  was  one  of  the  largest  land 
holders  in  northeast  Missouri. 

In  the  early  days,  from  1840  to  1870,  Mr.  See  acquired  land 
little  by  little.  He  entered  some  of  it  himself,  and  in  other  cases 
bought  it  from  others  who  wished  to  sell.  In  the  forties  and  fifties 
the  whole  country  from  Montgomery  City  to  Palmyra,  in  Marion 
County,  was  an  open  prairie,  with  grass  as  high  as  a  horse's  back. 
The  flies  were  so  bad  that  people  could  not  live  in  the  prairie,  and 
the  early  settlements  had  therefore  all  been  along  the  creek  bot- 
toms and  in  the  timbered  regions,  where  water  also  was  more  ac- 
cessible than  in  the  prairie  country. 

But  Mr.  See  himself  moved  to  the  Prairie  Place,  three  miles 
northwest  of  Montgomery  City,  about  1852,  and  settlers  began  to 
enter  the  prairie  land  also.  At  this  time  they  had  to  go  to  Pal- 
myra to  obtain  the  land  patents,  and  thus  had  to  ride  about  sixty 
miles  through  the  high  grass.  It  was  impossible  to  travel  by  day, 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.   J.   SEE  15 

because  the  flies  were  so  bad  on  the  horses,  and  the  custom  was 
to  travel  by  night.  Many  times  did  Noah  See  traverse  this 
stretch  of  open  prairie  with  nothing  but  the  stars  to  guide  him. 
As  he  was  a  surveyor,  he  knew  how  to  reach  his  destination  by  the 
shortest  route,  which  often  decided  who  got  the  land  offered  for 
patent  by  the  Government.  Guided  by  the  stars  he  would  ride 
all  night,  and  rest  his  horse  by  day,  under  a  cover  to  protect  the 
animal  from  the  flies;  and  then  on  the  second  night  reach  Palmyra 
by  the  light  of  the  morning  stars. 

Most  of  Professor  See's  country  place  on  Loutre,  was  entered 
by  his  maternal  great  grandfather,  Phillip  Cobb*,  from  whom 
Noah  See  purchased  it  in  1837;  but  he  calls  it  Starlight,  in  memory 
of  the  nightly  journeys  of  his  father,  who  thus  acquired  so  much 
of  his  land  by  entry  at  Palmyra.  Besides  the  name  Starlight  is 
very  appropriate  for  the  home  of  an  astronomer,  who  first  learned 
to  study  the  heavens  in  this  most  beautiful  region  of  Montgomery 
County. 

After  his  marriage  in  1853,  Mr.  See  gave  up  building  and  con- 
structing houses  for  others,  but  as  he  had  acquired  several  farms 
of  his  own,  he  continued  to  improve  them  with  buildings,  barns, 
and  tenant  houses.  And  he  continued  to  act  as  bridge  com- 
missioner for  the  county  till  after  1880.  While  Noah  See  always 
took  a  keen  interest  in  public  affairs,  and  was  so  patriotic  in  his 
feelings  that  he  named  his  sons  largely  after  the  Presidents,  he  did 
not  like  political  life,  as  it  is  carried  on.  Hence  he  made  it  a  rule 
not  to  hold  public  office.  But  upon  the  solicitation  of  friends  he 
was  persuaded  to  be  a  candidate  for  county  surveyor  twice  in 
the  seventies,  and  was  each  time  elected  by  good  majorities. 


*  The  Cobbs,  like  the  Sailors,  were  of  English  origin,  having  settled  in  Virginia 
before  the  Revolution.  After  participating  in  that  struggle  some  of  them  moved 
to  Montgomery  County,  Ky.  Phillip  Cobb  settled  in  Montgomery  County,  Mo., 
in  1823,  and  his  daughter  Sabina  married  James  Sailor,  Dec.  28,  1828. 
Among  well  known  descendants  of  the  Cobbs  of  Virginia  are  Professor  Collier 
Cobb  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  the  celebrated  Confederate  States- 
man Howell  Cobb,  Justice  A.  J.  Cobb  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Georgia,  and 
others. 


16  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

For  many  years  he  was  accustomed  to  ride  about  the  County 
on  bridge  inspections,  surveying,  and  other  work;  and  often 
attended  court  at  Danville  to  hear  speeches  by  the  more  eminent 
lawyers.  He  would  also  attend  political  meetings,  to  hear  Sena- 
tors Vest,  and  Cockrell,  or  Champ  Clark.  In  earlier  days  he 
heard  ex-Senators  John  B.  Henderson,  and  Waldo  P.  Johnston, 
and  predicted  eminent  careers  for  both  of  them.  He  had  been  a 
great  admirer  of  Henry  Clay,  but  said  that  he  was  too  honest  to 
be  elected  President. 

On  account  of  these  habits  Noah  See  was  accustomed  to  be 
much  away  from  home  during  the  day,  but  seldom  stayed  over 
night,  and  when  he  did  it  was  with  some  of  the  substantial  citizens. 
Occasionally  his  surveying  work  took  him  to  remote  parts  of  the 
County,  and  he  might  be  gone  a  week;  but  this  was  exceptional. 
He  knew  everybody  in  the  County  of  any  standing,  and  had  a 
strong  personal  following,  and  very  few  enemies.  His  fondness 
for  riding  and  his  activity  about  the  farm,  in  spite  of  severe  weather, 
kept  him  in  fairly  good  health  till  within  a  year  of  his  death  in 
1890. 

As  Noah  See  always  lived  on  large  farms  in  the  country,  only 
the  district  schools  were  available  for  the  education  of  his  children, 
except  when  special  arrangements  were  made  for  their  stay  in  town, 
or  at  the  University,  after  T.  J.  J.  See  went  there  in  1884.  \  In 
Professor  See's  boyhood  the  family  lived  at  the  Loutre  place,  about 
seven  miles  west  of  Montgomery  City.  The  father  might  go  to 
town  on  business,  every  day  or  every  few  days,  but  the  rest  of  the 
family  stayed  close  at  home,  and  were  actively  occupied  with  the 
work  of  the  farm,  the  children  being  in  school  about  four  months 
during  the  winter.  This  was  the  common  country  school,  very 
good  as  far  as  it  went,  but  usually  not  going  beyond  the  elements 
of  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  history,  geography,  and 
in  a  few  cases  the  elements  of  physics,  geometry  and  physical 
geography. 

With  only  four  months  of  the  year  devoted  to  school,  it  is 
clear  that  advancement  could  not  be  very  rapid.  Each  year  the 


1! 
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S«r 

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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  17 

pupils  got  a  little  further  than  the  year  before,  and  the  brighter 
ones  took  up  new  studies.  Noah  See  was  "good  in  figures"  or  a 
good  mathematician,  and  he  taught  his  son  Thomas  some  of  the 
most  important  processes  of  arithmetic.  Usually,  however,  the 
children  depended  upon  the  teacher,  and  the  older  children  who 
had  gone  over  the  ground  before.  But,  on  the  one  hand,  if  the 
schools  were  limited  and  somewhat  short  and  inadequate,  yet  on 
the  other  they  were  not  crammed  with  such  a  mass  of  stuff  as  to 
confuse  both  teacher  and  pupil,  as  they  so  often  are  nowadays. 

Thus  Professor  See's  early  educational  advantages  were  lim- 
ited, but  such  as  to  give  a  clear  understanding  of  what  he  did 
study.  Professor  Benjamin  Elliott  was  his  earliest  teacher,  and 
he  was  a  good  mathematician,  and  clearheaded  in  all  that  he  did. 
Professor  See's  later  instructors  during  the  years  at  Loutre,  in- 
cluded his  sister  Mrs.  A.  M.  Weeks,  who  was  an  excellent  teacher, 
and  especially  good  in  arithmetic.  From  his  earliest  studies  it  was 
observed  that  Tom  See  always  stood  at  the  head  of  his  classes.  Good 
in  everything,  he  would  spell  down  every  one  in  school,  the  teacher 
not  excepted;  and  it  was  the  same  way  in  arithmetic.  If  there 
was  any  problem  which  no  one  could  solve,  in  such  books  as  Ray's 
Arithmetic,  it  was  put  up  to  Tom  See,  and  not  once  did  he  fail. 

The  old  Loutre  school  house  was  burned  down  during  Christ- 
mas week  of  1875,  and  a  new  frame  school  house  built  by  Noah 
See  for  the  district,  on  a  tract  of  land  donated  by  him  for  the  pur- 
pose. It  is  now  called  Starlight,  and  is  included  within  Professor 
See's  country  place.  It  was  here  that  Tom  See  as  a  boy  of  twelve 
and  thirteen  went  to  school  during  the  winter  of  1878  and  1879. 
He  won  the  first  prize  for  scholarship,  a  beautiful  picture,  and  on 
the  last  day  of  school  surprised  everybody  by  solving  a  very  diffi- 
cult problem  in  Ray's  Third  Part  of  Arithmetic,  which  Professor 
Elliott  and  many  others  believed  could  not  be  solved.  ^ 

In  these  early  school  days,  which  were  characterized  by  few 
but  excellent  books,  Tom  See  became  familar  with  Longfellow's 
"Psalm  of  Life"  by  hearing  this  famous  poem  recited  from  time 
to  time: 


18  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 


"A  PSALM  OF  LIFE.' 


"  What  the  Heart  of  the  Young  Man  Said  to  the  Psalmist." 

"Tell  me  not,  in  mournful  numbers, 

Life  is  but  an  empty  dream!— 
For  the  soul  is  dead  that  slumbers, 
And  things  are  not  what  they  seem. 

"Life  is  real!    Life  is  earnest! 

And  the  grave  is  not  its  goal; 
Dust  thou  art,  to  dust  returnest, 
Was  not  spoken  of  the  soul. 

"Not  enjoyment,  and  not  sorrow, 

Is  our  destined  end  or  way; 

But  to  act,  that  each  to-morrow 

Finds  us  farther  from  to-day. 

"Art  is  long,  and  Time  is  fleeting, 

And  our  hearts,  though  stout  and  brave, 
Still,  like  muffled  drums,  are  beating 
Funeral  marches  to  the  grave. 

"In  the  world's  broad  field  of  battle, 

In  the  bivouac  of  Life, 
Be  not  like  dumb,  driven  cattle! 
Be  a  hero  in  the  strife! 

"Trust  no  Future,  howe'er  pleasant! 
Let  the  dead  Past  bury  its  dead! 
Act, —  act  in  the  living  Present! 
Heart  within,  and  God  o'erhead! 

"Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 
And,  departing,  leave  behind  us 
Footprints  on  the  sands  of  time; 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  19 

"Footprints,  that  perhaps  another, 
Sailing  o'er  life's  solemn  main, 
A  forlorn  and  shipwrecked  brother, 
Seeing,  shall  take  heart  again. 

"Let  us,  then,  be  up  and  doing, 

With  a  heart  for  any  fate; 
Still  achieving,  still  pursuing, 
Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait." 

It  is  undeniable  that  even  in  the  boyhood  period  Tom  See  had 
such  pride  that  he  dreamed  of  some  day  becoming  a  great  man. 
Thus  the  stanza: 

"Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 
And,  departing,  leave  behind  us 
Footprints  on  the  sands  of  time." 

seems  to  have  sunk  deep  into  his  soul  —  how  deep,  perhaps  only 
the  record  of  his  unrivaled  achievements  in  mature  manhood  can 
adequately  tell.  At  any  rate  the  fire  of  youthful  ambition  thus 
enkindled  by  Longfellow's  inspiring  song  never  wholly  died  out; 
for  even  in  deepest  adversity  he  still  remembered  vividly  those 

"Footprints,  that  perhaps  another, 
Sailing  o'er  life's  solemn  main, 
A  forlorn  and  shipwrecked  brother, 
Seeing,  shall  take  heart  again." 

Thus  it  is  believed  that  such  poems,  taken  earnestly  and  sink- 
ing deep  into  the  subconscious  mind,  had  a  great  influence  in 
moulding  Professor  See's  career.  The  two  conditions  necessary 
for  this  effect  were  a  serious  and  earnest  view  of  life,  and  a  pro- 
digious memory  —  both  of  which  Tom  See  had  in  the  highest 
degree.  And  with  all  he  had  resolute  purpose  to  adhere  to  plans 
once  formed,  and  thus  triumph  over  all  difficulties,  like  the  heroes 
we  read  about  in  history. 


20  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

While  living  at  Loutre,  within  half  a  mile  of  the  beautiful 
river  by  this  name,  two  astronomical  events  especially  impressed 
the  boy  Tom  See.  On  the  evening  of  January  1,  1877,  the  family 
had  retired  early,  after  an  active  day  about  the  farm,  when,  to  the 
terror  and  consternation  of  mother  and  children,  a  great  meteor 
suddenly  appeared  in  the  west  and  traversed  the  heavens  with 
a  rapid  flight  towards  the  northeast.  It  was  so  bright  as  to  cast 
a  brilliant  light  through  the  windows,  and  the  shadows  on  the 
floor  moved  rapidly  around  with  the  flight  of  the  meteor,  so  that 
the  effect  was  very  terrifying.  Some  thought  it  was  so  near  as  to 
hit  the  barn,  but  a  moment's  observation  showed  it  to  be  very  far 
away.  Subsequent  reports  declared  that  it  passed  over  central 
Iowa.  A  blazing  train  was  left  behind,  and  a  thundering  noise 
followed  sometime  after  the  meteor  had  disappeared. 

At  the  time  of  this  occurrence  Noah  See  was  absent  from 
home,  on  surveying  work,  and  spending  the  night  with  Mr.  Black, 
near  Wellsville.  He  saw  the  phenomenon  and  knew  immediately 
that  it  was  a  meteor.  Needless  to  say,  he  watched  its  flight  with- 
out alarm,  just  as  he  had  the  brilliant  star  shower  of  Nov.  12, 1833, 
in  Virginia.  He  described  the  train  of  the  meteor  as  equal  to  the 
Moon  in  width,  and  ten  times  as  long  as  it  was  broad,  so  that  the 
light  was  very  intense.  Great  pieces  of  fire  seemed  to  fall  from 
the  meteor  as  it  traversed  the  heavens,  with  dazzling  splendor, 
inferior  only  to  the  light  of  the  Sun;  and  the  earth  was  so  lighted 
up  that  the  smallest  objects  could  be  seen  on  the  ground,  even  in 
a  forest.  The  suddenness  of  the  phenomenon  and  its  great  bril- 
liancy inspired  general  terror  and  not  only  in  human  beings,  but 
even  in  animals  of  all  kinds,  which  were  awakened  from  their 
slumbers  as  by  an  earthquake,  and  for  some  time  could  not  be 
quieted. 

The  other  event  of  special  astronomical  interest  was  the  solar 
eclipse  of  July  29,  1878,  which  was  total  in  Colorado  and  Wyom- 
ing. It  so  much  cut  down  the  sun's  light  in  Missouri  as  to  give 
the  afternoon  the  appearance  of  moonlight.  The  See  boys  were 
at  work  in  the  fields,  and  on  coming  home  found  the  rest  of  the 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  21 

family  and  Squire  McLoughlin  of  Williamsburg  looking  at  the 
Sun  through  a  smoked  glass.  This  eclipse  interested  the  boy  Tom 
See  almost  as  much  as  that  of  1869  had  the  child,  though  the  dark- 
ness was  only  a  great  reduction  of  the  Sun's  light,  the  belt  of  total- 
ity not  having  crossed  over  Missouri. 

Loutre  Creek  is  noted  for  its  fine  fish,  and  in  those  days  the 
See  boys  were  great  fishermen.  At  the  end  of  the  week,  when 
the  farm  work  was  done,  they  would  go  to  the  Creek  for  some  good 
sport.  Noah  See  had  built  a  boat,  for  use  on  the  large  hole  of 
water  near  the  school  house,  and  this  added  to  the  safety  and 
pleasure  of  the  fishing,  in  which  the  boy  Tom  See  was  no  laggard. 
He  liked  to  fish,  though  he  cared  little  for  hunting. 

The  Loutre  region  is  hilly  and  heavily  timbered,  and  the  work 
of  the  large  farm  included  the  felling  of  trees,  rolling  of  logs,  and 
all  manner  of  hauling,  as  well  as  plowing,  planting  and  cultivating 
the  corn  and  other  crops.  Tom  See  participated  in  all  such 
work,  and  as  this  kept  him  in  the  healthiest  of  outdoor  activity 
it  probably  gave  him  the  physique  requisite  for  the  hard  mental 
work  he  has  since  done  in  science.  But  for  the  work  on  the  farm, 
in  boyhood  and  young  manhood,  it  is  practically  certain  that  he 
could  not  have  achieved  what  he  has  in  the  way  of  discovery. 

It  is  a  common  belief  that  discovery  is  a  matter  of  genius,  and 
so  it  is;  but  genius  itself  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  hard  work  and  ever- 
lasting perseverance.  It  was  long  ago  remarked  by  Michael 
Angelo,  the  celebrated  Italian  painter,  sculptor  and  architect, 
that  genius  consists  in  eternal  patience.  Another  great  authority 
says  it  is  the  ability  to  do  hard  work.  Professor  See  himself  says 
that  genius  is  a  combination  of  all  these  and  more  besides:  " It  is 
the  ability  to  do  hard  work,  combined  with  eternal  patience  and 
the  faith  that  moves  mountains."  Without  all  these  qualities 
genius  of  the  highest  order  does  not  exist;  and  the  rarity  of  the 
combination  is  the  reason  why  we  have  so  little  genius  of  the  first 
rank.  Modern  society,  as  now  organized  and  conducted,  does 
next  to  nothing  to  support  the  labors  of  genius;  and  therefore  we 
should  wonder  not  that  we  have  so  little  genius,  but  that  we  have 


22  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

any  at  all,  especially  in  those  branches  of  human  effort  which  are 
without  profit,  such  as  scientific  discovery.  Professor  See's  de- 
cision to  be  a  scientist  was  a  matter  of  gradual  development,  as 
more  fully  set  forth  in  the  next  chapter.  In  his  boyhood  he  could 
not  forsee  the  opportunity,  which  came  later,  for  devoting  his  life 
to  scientific  research. 

r~~In  the  month  of  October,  1879,  the  See  family  moved  to  the 
large  farm  of  920  acres  on  Elkhorn  Creek,  three  miles  southeast 
of  Montgomery  City,  where  the  mother  still  lives.  While  feeding 
the  turkeys  one  winter  morning  of  1878-9,  Noah  See  fell  on  the 
sloping  ground,  about  the  Loutre  residence,  and  fractured  the 
bones  in  his  left  foot,  which  confined  him  to  the  house  for  a  time. 
This  led  him  to  think  of  the  greater  safety  of  the  level  prairie  for 
an  elderly  person.  Then  too,  it  happened  that  the  eldest  son, 
Filmore,  was  already  feeding  cattle  on  an  extensive  scale  at  Elk- 
horn,  where  the  pasture  of  nearly  a  thousand  acres  was  at  hand. 
Mr.  See  and  the  eldest  son  were  in  partnership,  and  as  the  other 
boys  were  nearing  manhood,  it  seemed  that  the  prairie  offered  the 
best  opportunity  for  the  future.  The  family  therefore  quit  Loutre 
and  settled  permanently  between  Montgomery  City  and  New 
Florence. 

Before  parting  from  Loutre  in  this  narrative,  however,  we 
may  remark  that  a  terrible  tornado  visited  that  region,  Jan.  1, 
1876,  just  a  year  before  the  great  meteor  appeared.  Many  of  the 
strongest  trees  were  uprooted,  and  twisted  to  pieces,  fences  swept 
away,  and  even  crab  apple  bushes  torn  from  the  ground.  In  the 
case  of  rail  fences  not  even  the  ground  rail  was  left  in  its  bed. 
This  storm  came  unexpectedly  about  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
when  the  family  had  just  finished  dinner.  Jacob  Stewart,  Esq.,* 
of  near  Wellsville,  an  old  time  Virginian  and  a  tried  friend  of  the 
terrible  days  of  the  Civil  War,  was  stopping  at  the  house,  having 
come  on  foot  the  day  before  to  pay  his  taxes  at  Danville,  and  re- 
mained over  to  recall  the  stories  of  narrow  escapes  which  had 

*A  first  Cousin  of  Margaret  (Stewart)  See,  wife  of  John  See,  and  Sister-in- 
Law  of  Noah  See. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  23 

enabled  him  and  Mr.  See  to  live  through  that  desperate  con- 
flict. 

As  soon  as  it  was  realized  that  a  storm  was  breaking,  Tom 
See  and  his  brothers  ran  to  the  windows,  only  to  behold  the  largest 
oaks  whirling  and  falling  before  the  blast  of  the  tornado.  The 
whole  forest  for  a  mile  was  in  an  uproar;  but  the  center  of  the 
cyclone  had  missed  the  house  and  passed  nearer  Loutre  Creek. 
The  family  immediately  scattered  to  look  after  the  animals  on  the 
farm,  now  unrestrained  by  any  fences,  and  Mr.  Stewart,  fearing 
for  the  safety  of  his  own  family  near  Wellsville,  struck  out  for 
home.  This  terrible  storm  produced  a  deep  impression  on  the 
mind  of  Tom  See,  then  a  boy  ten  years  old,  but  it  is  remarkable 
that  no  fatalities  resulted  from  the  tornado,  because  the  region 
was  thinly  populated.  The  force  seems  to  have  spent  itself  on 
the  forests  of  Loutre  hills,  and  but  little  damage  resulted  else- 
where. Yet  some  of  the  large  trees  blown  down  had  turned  up 
immense  rocks  as  much  as  eight  feet  high,  attached  to  their  roots; 
and  for  years  the  travelers  along  the  public  road  wondered  at  the 
scene  of  devastation  presented  to  their  eyes,  and  used  to  inquire 
the  particulars  from  Tom  See  and  his  brothers. 

Aside  from  the  occasional  appearance  of  a  comet  in  the 
heavens,  and  floods  of  Loutre  Creek,  following  terrible  storms 
of  thunder  and  lightning,  which  are  very  common  there,  the 
natural  phenomena  of  most  significant  character  have  now  been 
recorded. 

It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  little  Tom  See  from 
childhood  had  a  great  fondness  for  large  trees,  and  especially  for 
trees  of  beautiful  shape.  Trees  with  snags  or  irregularities  in 
their  limbs  were  considered  by  him  very  ugly,  and  he  was  con- 
stantly devising  ways  and  means  to  get  rid  of  them.  Once  the 
family  went  to  church,  when  Tom  was  about  three  years  old,  and 
he  happened  to  sit  near  the  window,  where  he  could  look  out  into 
the  neighboring  forest.  The  snags  on  the  trees  interested  him 
much  more  than  the  sermon;  and  if  he  did  not  have  a  swinging 
lamp  to  study,  as  young  Galileo  had  in  the  Cathedral  at  Pisa,  he 


24  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

kept  his  mind  on  the  improvements  needed  for  beautifying  the 
symmetry  and  regularity  of  the  grove  of  trees  about  the  Church. 
It  is  probable  that  this  craving  for  regularity  and  symmetry  in 
the  trees  was  an  expression  of  the  mathematical  talents  then 
latent  in  the  mind  of  the  child.  His  mother  had  always  been  very 
fond  of  trees,  and  Professor  See  to  this  day  dearly  loves  a  fine 
forest,  and  will  not  allow  any  timber  to  be  destroyed  on  his  country 
places. 

At  the  large  estate  of  Noah  See  on  Elkhorn,the  school  facili- 
ties were  no  better  than  on  Loutre.  The  boys  were  occupied  with 
the  business  of  the  farm,  and  as  before  school  did  not  extend  over 
more  than  four  months.  During  the  winter  of  1882-3,  Tom  See 
missed  school  entirely.  His  eldest  sister,  Mrs.  A.  M.  Weeks,  was 
much  disturbed  about  his  lack  of  suitable  opportunity  for  extend- 
ing his  education.  It  happened  that  the  Montgomery  City  School 
was  being  improved,  under  a  superior  teacher,  Professor  A.  L. 
Jenness,  who  had  been  a  student  at  Amherst,  but  had  not  gradua- 
ted. Mrs.  Weeks  now  besought  her  father  to  let  Tom  go  to  the 
town  school,  by  riding  back  and  forth  on  horseback.  After  con- 
siderable effort  this  plan  was  fixed  upon,  and  Tom  made  the  best 
of  his  opportunities.  • 

In  this  place  it  "may  be  noted  that  the  teachers  of  Professor 
See,  during  boyhood  and  youth,  prior  to  his  entrance  at  the  Mont- 
gomery City  High  School,  Sept.,  1883,  were  as  follows: 

1872-  3,  Benjamin  Elliott, 

1873-  4,  Benjamin  Elliott, 

1874-  5,  Benjamin  Elliott, 

1875-  6,  Lafayette  Brelsford, 

1876-  7,  Miss  Mattie  Phipps, 

1877-  8,  Benjamin  Elliott, 

1878-  9,  Mrs.  A.  M.  Weeks, 
1879-80,  Miss  Rhetta  Lens, 
1880-81,  Miss  Helen  Huddleston, 
1881-82,  Miss  Helen  Huddleston. 


MR.  T.  J.  J.  SEE,  AS  HE  APPEARED  WHEN  A  YOUTH  OF  SEVENTEEN. 
From  a  photograph  by  Varnum,  Montgomery  City,  Mo.,  1883. 


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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  25 

At  the  Montgomery  City  High  School,  1883-4,  Professor  See's 
teachers  were  the  principal,  Professor  A.  L.  Jenness,  and  Miss 
Lillian  Jones,  first  assistant. 

The  arguments  used  by  Mrs.  Weeks  with  her  father  were  to 
the  effect  that  Tom  was  so  talented  that  he  ought  to  have  a  good 
education.  Others  had  made  similar  arguments  before,  and  she 
merely  emphasized  the  current  view.  Senators  Vest  and  Cockrell, 
she  said,  could  not  always  serve  Missouri  in  the  Senate;  and  Col- 
onel A.  H.  Buckner  would  need  a  successor  in  Congress  (this  was 
of  course  before  the  days  of  Champ  Clark.)  Noah  See  had  a  poor 
opinion  of  the  legal  profession,  as  now  carried  on,  and  did  not  wish 
any  of  his  sons  to  adopt  a  profession  in  which  he  could  not  be 
honest  and  preserve  a  good  conscience.  He  had  such  a  high 
opinion  of  Tom's  abilities  and  steady  qualities  that  he  was  inclined 
to  think  he  would  make  a  great  man,  if  given  an  opportunity;  and 
as  others  in  the  community  told  him  the  same  thing  about  the 
promise  of  this  son,  he  gradually  came  to  favor  more  elaborate 
education  for  him. 

There  were  some  other  favorable  circumstances  which  came 
to  Tom's  support.  About  1882  his  father  had  purchased  at  low 
price  a  large  tract  of  land  in  Vernon  County,  by  which  he  made 
considerable  money.  Former  United  States  Senator  Waldo  P. 
Johnson  of  St.  Louis  said  that  Noah  See  made  $10,000  by  this 
trade.  It  may  have  been  more.  And  he  added  to  it  other  tracts 
of  land  also  purchased  at  low  price,  till  he  had  about  4,000  acres 
in  southwest  Missouri.  The  increase  in  the  value  of  this  property 
made  Mr.  See  feel  that  his  large  family  eventually  would  be  well 
provided  for.  When  his  older  children  were  of  school  age  he  had 
not  been  so  well  off,  and  could  not  so  easily  provide  for  their  educa- 
tion, as  he  now  could  for  Tom's.  There  was  some  jealousy  in  the 
family  over  this  outlook,  but  it  was  felt  to  be  right  to  provide  for 
Tom  even  if  such  full  provision  had  not  been  made  for  others  when 
circumstances  were  less  favorable. 

There  was  one  other  more  powerful  reason  than  any  other 
why  Tom  had  his  way,  namely,  he  was  always  a  most  industrious 


26  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

and  efficient  worker,  and  his  father  saw  that  he  would  not  waste 
money  or  neglect  opportunities.  By  strict  attention  to  business 
Tom  came  to  enjoy  his  father's  confidence  more  than  any  other 
of  his  sons.  He  therefore  entered  the  Montgomery  City  School 
in  the  autumn  of  1883,  and  kept  going  from  home  daily  till  May, 
1884.  Tom  See  was  now  seventeen,  and  quite  tall,  being  almost 
a  six  footer*.  He  was  poorly  trained  in  comparison  with  some  of 
the  town  boys,  but  they  did  not  have  the  industry  and  determina- 
tion which  Tom  had,  and  before  spring  came  around  he  stood  first 
in  the  school. 

He  distinguished  himself  especially  in  geometry,  physics, 
and  astronomy.  For  although  there  was  no  regular  course  in 
astronomy,  Tom  had  obtained  at  Jas.  R.  Hance's  store  a  copy  of 
Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Astronomy,  and  read  it  with  such  ab- 
sorbing interest  that  at  the  close  of  the  term  he  delivered  an  origi- 
nal composition  on  astronomy,  which  led  Rev.  Henry  Kay  to 
remark  that  he  saw  in  the  effort  made  indications  like  those  noticed 
by  the  sculptor  who  saw  a  beautiful  statue  in  a  rough  block  of 
marble. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  year  at  the  Montgomery 
City  School  was  without  its  trials  and  hardships,  and  serious  ones 
at  that.  But  the  significiant  fact  was  that  the  country  boy  of 
energy,  ambition  and  purpose,  though  entering  but  poorly  pre- 
pared, had  distanced  all  his  city  competitors  in  the  race  for  scholar- 
ship. Tom  See  had  made  good  in  the  general  estimation  of  the 
school  and  in  the  eyes  of  his  teacher,  and  won  the  support  of  his 
father  to  such  other  educational  career  as  he  might  wish  to  enter 
upon.  He  missed  only  two  days  of  the  school  year,  when  the 
creeks  were  beyond  their  banks  and  impassable;  and  on  each  of 
these  occasions  he  notified  the  teacher  by  U.  S.  Mail  why  he  was 
detained.  No  wonder  his  efforts  commanded  confidence,  even 
among  doubting  Thomases!  Such  serious  and  determined  effort 
had  not  been  expected  by  anyone.  At  first  the  town  boys  had 

*  His  present  height  is  six  feet  four  inches,  and  weight  about  240  pounds,  so 
that  he  is  a  man  of  very  commanding  presence. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  27 

been  inclined  to  laugh  at  the  simple  farmer  from  the  country;  but 
before  the  year  closed  they  saw  their  mistake,  sighed  that  they  had 
lost  in  the  race  with  him,  and  were  in  a  more  serious  mood. 

Before  closing  this  account  of  Professor  See's  boyhood  days, 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  fact  that  he  always  had  great  taste 
for  art.  While  still  occupied  on  the  farm  he  would  spend  his  even- 
ings with  books,  or  in  drawing  and  copying  pictures.  He  drew 
a  good  picture  of  the  great  comet  of  1882,  which  in  1910  was  en- 
graved in  the  second  volume  of  Professor  See's  monumental  work, 
Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Stellar  Systems.  His  artistic 
work  included  portraits,  done  with  pencil,  and  resembling  steel 
engravings.  Water  color  work  was  one  of  his  favorite  labors, 
and  he  painted  flowers  and  fruit  after  the  manner  of  veteran  artists. 
This  was  all  done  without  any  teacher,  and  at  such  moments  as 
he  could  snatch  from  daily  outdoor  life  on  the  farm.  Some  of  his 
drawings  gained  prizes  at  the  Montgomery  County  Fair;  and  when 
he  entered  the  Missouri  University  in  the  autumn  of  1884,  Pro- 
fessor Diehl,  the  Professor  of  Art,  told  him  that  they  showed  great 
originality  and  artistic  power.  Since  he  became  a  scientist  Pro- 
fessor See  has  found  no  little  use  for  his  talent,  by  way  of  drawing 
and  illustrating,  though  naturally  he  has  not  cultivated  art  in  a 
professional  way.  Yet  this  childhood  and  boyhood  tendency  to 
seek  the  true  and  beautiful  gives  the  key  to  the  labors  of  his  life. 


CHAPTER  III. 
1884-1889. 

FIVE  YEARS  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI. 

FIRED  WITH  ENTHUSIASM  BY  THE  STUDY  OF  HUMBOLDT,  NEWTON, 
LAPLACE  AND  HERSCHEL,  YOUNG  MR.  SEE  GRADUATES  AT  THE 
HEAD  OF  HIS  CLASS,  WITH  HIGHEST  HONORS  IN  ASTRONOMY. 

'E  have  already  pointed  out  that  Professor  See  as  a  youth 
of  seventeen  had  some  difficulty  in  securing  an  opportun- 
ity to  attend  the  Montgomery  City  High  School,  but  he 
made  good  to  such  a  degree  that  he  fixed  his  eye  on  the  State 
University  at  Columbia,  and  none  there  were  to  oppose  his  going._) 
Accordingly  soon  after  the  High  School  closed  in  May,  1884, 
young  Mr.  See  visited  Columbia  on  a  tour  of  inspection,  to  see 
what  the  University  looked  like.  He  had  a  letter  of  introduction, 
from  a  Mr.  Lovelace,  a  former  student  of  the  University,  to 
Professor  Paul  Schweitzer,  of  the  Department  of  Chemistry. 

Columbia,  in  the  first  days  of  June,  always  wears  a  gay  aspect, 
in  honor  of  the  commencement  week;  but  on  arriving  there  young 
Mr.  See  only  looked  about  the  town,  walked  over  to  the  Univer- 
sity, inspected  the  buildings,  attended  some  services  in  the  Chapel, 
met  and  conversed  with  Professor  Schweitzer,  was  introduced  to 
Dr.  Laws,  the  President,  who  advised  him  to  study  agriculture 
and  return  to  the  farm.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  Dr.  Laws  did 
not  encourage  young  Mr.  See  in  the  idea  of  a  scientific  career,  nor 
did  the  young  man  himself  at  that  time  think  it  prudent  to  discuss 
his  inmost  hopes  beyond  a  mere  hint  that  he  was  interested  in 
science.  Yet  he  satisfied  himself  that  the  University  was  an  im- 
portant center  of  learning,  representing  the  State  of  Missouri, 
and  that  it  offered  ample  opportunities  for  his  present  needs. 
Accordingly,  after  a  stay  of  two  days  at  Columbia,  Mr.  See  return- 


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MR.  T.  J.  J.  SEE  AS  HE  APPEARED  AT  THE  AGE  OF  TWENTY 

Then  a  student  at  the  University  of  Missouri.     From  a  photograph  by  Douglass, 
Columbia,  Mo.,  1886. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  29 

ed  to  his  home  at  Montgomery  City,  to  wait  for  the  opening  of 
the  University  in  the  autumn. 

A  few  words  must  now  be  added  to  explain  Mr.  See's  early 
interest  in  natural  science.  While  attending  school  under  Pro- 
fessor Benjamin  Elliott,  during  the  winter  of  1877-8,  he  had  taken 
up  the  study  of  physical  geography  in  a  very  elementary  way. 
He  used  Monteith's  Geography,  which  included  an  outline  of  the 
theories  of  the  interior  of  the  Earth.  Molten  matter  and  volcanic 
action  henceforth  were  familiar  to  the  boy's  mind.  The  taste  was 
further  developed  during  succeeding  winters,  and  the  name  of 
Humboldt  was  so  often  quoted  that  he  longed  to  see  his  Cosmos. 

During  the  winter  of  1882-3,  when  Tom  See  was  out  of  school, 
he  corresponded  with  a  book  agent,  having  advertisements  in  the 
Journal  of  Agriculture,  St.  Louis  (a  Mr.  A.  E.  Wardner,  of  Perry, 
Mo.),  who  procured  for  him  a  copy  of  the  Bohn  translation  of  the 
Cosmos,  nicely  bound  in  half  calf,  for  $17.00.  It  was  understood 
to  have  been  purchased  in  Chicago.  Mr.  See  tried  to  read  it,  but 
of  course  most  of  it  was  beyond  his  grasp;  yet  he  did  get  a  great 
deal  of  inspiration  from  it,  and  some  idea  of  the  extent  and  variety 
of  the  physical  sciences.  The  subsequent  study  of  physical  geo- 
graphy in  the  Montgomery  City  High  School  was  more  thorough, 
and  enabled  him  to  better  appreciate  Humboldt.  But  little  could 
the  young  man  then  have  dreamed  that  twenty-two  years  later 
he  would  himself  become  an  authority  of  the  physics  of  the  earth 
greater  than  Humboldt  or  any  other  naturalist  of  former  times. 

Now  when  Mr.  See  was  in  his  first  session  at  the  University, 
in  December,  1884,  a  teachers'  conference  was  in  progress,  and 
who  should  he  meet  there  but  Mr.  A.  E.  Wardner  of  Perry,  Mo., 
who  had  procured  him  the  copy  of  Humboldt 's  Cosmos?  The 
meeting  was  very  agreeable,  and  Mr.  Wardner  encouraged  the 
young  man  to  go  on  with  his  studies.  Mr.  See  had  found  himself 
well  prepared  for  some  studies  at  the  University,  and  poorly  trained 
in  others.  Geometry  presented  no  difficulty,  but  algebra  was 
more  troublesome,  owing  to  a  confusion  in  the  use  of  the  signs, 
arising  from  defective  teaching  at  the  High  School.  The  mathe- 


30  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

matical  work  of  the  first  college  year  was  thus  carried  through, 
but  not  with  entire  satisfaction.  And  during  the  next  summer, 
while  at  home,  Mr.  See  found  time  to  review  his  algebra  thorough- 
ly, so  as  to  master  every  step;  and  from  that  day  on  he  never  once 
encountered  a  seroius  difficulty  in  any  branch  of  mathematics. 
He  believes  that  mathematics  naturally  is  an  easy  subject,  and 
that  most  people  find  it  difficult  only  because  the  processes  are 
not  made  clear  as  the  student  goes  along. 

Among  the  fortunate  events  of  Mr.  See's  first  year  at  the 
University  must  be  counted  his  instruction  in  Latin  under  Pro- 
fessor J.  C.  Jones,  who  advised  him  to  take  up  also  the  study  of 
the  Greek  language.  During  the  second  semester,  therefore,  he 
entered  the  class  in  Greek,  and  came  under  the  influence  of  Pro- 
fessor A.  F.  Fleet;  and  it  turned  out  later  that  this  entry  upon 
the  comprehensive  study  of  the  classics,  as  the  best  educational 
basis  for  a  profound  knowledge  of  science,  alone  made  it  possible 
for  Professor  See  to  take  high  rank  among  the  great  scholars  of 
history. 

In  an  account  of  his  stay  at  Berlin  during  the  winter  of  1787-8, 
Humboldt  recalls  that  he  applied  himself  in  emulation  of  his  in- 
dustrious Brother  Wilhelm,  afterwards  founder  of  the  University 
of  Berlin,  more  assiduously  to  Greek;  and  in  the  following  May 
he  writes  to  his  friend  Wegener  that  he  works  hard  under  Bar- 
tholdi's  instruction,  and  finds  the  study  of  the  language  a  pleasure. 
"The  more  I  know  of  the  Gereek  language,  the  more  I  am  con- 
firmed in  my  preconceived  opinion  that  it  is  the  true  foundation 
of  all  the  higher  branches  of  learning.  It  was  certainly  very  ill 
contrived  of  me  to  build  my  house  on  mere  sand;  yet  the  founda- 
tions of  so  temporary  a  structure  as  mine  may  easily  be  relaid, 
and  therefore  it  does  not  distress  me  that  I  am  only  learning  to 
decline  exiSva  in  my  nineteenth  year."  (Bruhns'  Life  of  Hum- 
boldt, transl.  by  Lassell,  Vol.  I,  p.  54). 

Similar  reasoning  evidently  was  employed  by  young  Mr.  See, 
for  he  too  first  learned  Greek  in  his  nineteenth  year,  because  he 
conceived  that  it  was  indispensable  to  a  thorough  mastery  of  the 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.   J.   SEE  31 

sciences.  Mr.  See  never  had  occasion  to  alter  this  impression  of 
his  early  student  life  at  the  University;  and  he  remains  to  this 
day  a  firm  believer  in  the  high  value  of  Greek  to  the  scientific 
investigator.  In  the  opening  sentence  of  Chapter  XXII  of 
his  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910,  pp.  625,  he  says:  "The  Science  of 
the  physical  Universe  begins  with  the  Greeks,  and  it  will  therefore 
be  of  interest  to  examine  their  theories  of  the  Milky  Way,  although 
it  would  be  unreasonable  to  expect  more  than  sound  fundamental 
principles  from  the  greatest  philosophers  who  lived  before  the  in- 
vention of  the  telescope." 

It  may  have  been  this  classic  standard  of  scholarship  as  well 
as  his  admiration  for  Humboldt  and  the  most  assiduous  industry 
in  the  pursuit  of  scientific  truth  that  caused  Mr.  See  to  be  fre- 
quently spoken  of  at  this  early  period  of  his  undergraduate  life 
as  the  "Humboldt  of  the  University."  At  any  rate  he  acquired 
this  name  among  the  students;  and  now  it  almost  seems  as  if  the 
saying  that  great  events  cast  their  shadows  before  them  had  a 
prophetic  basis  of  truth. 

Humboldt's  charm  of  style  is  due  to  his  classic  training,  and 
modern  readers  notice  the  same  elegance  and  beauty  of  style  in  the 
writings  of  Professor  See.  These  literary  accomplishments  are 
comparatively  rare  among  men  of  science,  and  it  is  unfortunate 
for  science  that  it  is  so;  because  elegance  adds  to  the  beauty  and 
artistic  finish  of  even  the  greatest  works.  Among  modern  scien- 
tists who  are  noted  for  elegance  and  simplicity  in  their  writing, 
one  recalls  especially  Laplace  and  Sir  John  Herschel,  Lord  Kelvin 
and  Sir  George  Darwin,  Newcomb  and  Poincare;  but  the  com- 
bination of  a  classic  style  with  scientific  thought  is  sufficiently  rare 
to  occasion  remark. 

Thus  after  the  appearance  of  the  second  volume  of  Professor 
See's  famous  Researches,  in  1910,  Professor  W.  B.  Smith  of  Tulane 
University,  New  Orleans,  writes  with  enthusiasm  how  fortunate 
it  is  that  America  had  produced  such  an  astronomer  who  is  also 
in  learning  and  spirit  a  Hellenist.  It  is  not  wonderful  therefore 
that  Professor  See  has  always  shown  great  appreciation  of  his 


32  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

early  instruction  under  Professor  J.  C.  Jones,  and  Professor  A.  F. 
Fleet,  who  awakened  his  love  for  the  classic  languages. 
f^  During  Mr.  See's  first  year  at  the  University  it  happened  that 
his  studies  did  not  include  physics  or  natural  philosophy.  That 
department  was  in  charge  of  Professor  B.  F.  Thomas,  who  at  the 
end  of  the  year  resigned  to  go  to  the  University  of  Ohio;  while 
Professor  W.  B.  Smith  of  Central  College,  Fayette,  Mo.,  was 
called  to  the  University  to  fill  the  chair  of  physics.  This  seems 
to  have  been  especially  fortunate  for  Mr.  See.  For  Smith  was  a 
most  inspiring  teacher,  and  both  his  learning  and  charm  of  manner 
set  up  an  enthusiasm  for  knowledge  which  carried  several  of  the 
Missouri  students  into  high  professional  careers  as  investigators, 
among  whom  See  and  Defoe  are  the  most  famous. ) 

But  before  dwelling  on  the  influence  of  Smith,  it  may  be 
pointed  out  that  Professors  Ficklin,  Cauthorn,  and  Tindall,  in  the 
department  of  mathematics,  had  confirmed  Mr.  See  more  and 
more  in  his  enthusiasm  for  geometry  and  the  related  mathemati- 
cal studies.  Ficklin  was  a  quiet  man,  of  slow  methodical  habits, 
but  an  excellent  teacher,  and  a  very  clear-headed  mathematician. 
He  was  kind  and  gentle,  but  not  very  intimate  with  the  students. 
When,  however,  he  came  to  know  the  serious  turn  of  a  student  he 
would  take  a  deep  interest  in  him;  and  thus  it  was  that  Ficklin 
heard  of  the  promise  of  Mr.  See  in  the  geometry  class  of  Professor 
Cauthorn. 

«  The  second  year  of  Mr.  See's  career  at  the  University  was 
one  of  the  most  important  of  the  five.  He  had  then  entered  upon 
his  studies  with  zeal  and  enthusiasm,  and  during  the  year  obtained 
a  good  start  in  mathematics,  physics,  and  chemistry,  as  well  as 
in  German  and  the  classics.  \ 

As  already  mentioneoT'Professor  W.  B.  Smith  held  the  chair 
of  physics  at  the  beginning  of  the  session  of  1885-6,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  occupy  it  till  Professor  Ficklin' s  death  in  the  summer 
of  1887,  when  Smith  was  given  charge  also  of  mathematics,  and 
later  formally  made  professor  of  mathematics.  Mr.  See's  studies 
in  mathematics  were  therefore  first  under  Ficklin  and  his  associ- 


PROFESSOR  PAUL  SCHWEITZER. 

Head  of  the  Department  of  Chemistry,  one  of  the  most  eminent  Pro- 
fessors of  the  University  of  Missouri.  He  was  born  in  Berlin,  Germany,  in  1840, 
and  died  at  Columbia,  Mo.,  in  1911,  after  40  years  service  to  the  University. 
He  was  strict,  but  very  just,  and  always  much  beloved  by  the  students,  a  firm 
friend  of  Professor  See,  and  among  the  first  to  recognize  his  great  discoveries  in 
Geogony  and  Cosmogony. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  33 

ates,  and  subsequently  under  Smith.  The  students  whom  Pro- 
fessor Smith  had  enthused  by  his  labors  in  the  department  of 
physics  now  followed  him  to  the  department  of  mathematics. 
He  was  the  center  of  thought  and  inspiration  in  the  University  - 
the  one  member  of  the  faculty  who  could  fill  with  credit  and  suc- 
cessjmy  chair,  from  Greek  and  logic  to  mathematics  and  physics. 

We  shall  not  go  into  the  details  of  Mr.  See's  studies,  further 
than  to  say  that  his  work  in  physics,  chemistry  and  mathematics 
had  its  foundation  laid  in  the  years  1885-7,  and  was  more  fully 
rounded  out  during  the  last  two  years  at  the  UniversityJ  The 
department  of  chemistry  under  Professor  Schweitzer  was  es- 
pecially fine.  It  was  in  this  department  that  See  broke  the  record, 
making  the  best  grade  since  the  foundation  of  the  University. 
Professor  Schweitzer  wanted  him  to  be  a  chemist,  but  his  mind 
was  already  set  on  the  study  of  the  stars.  Mr.  See  has  always 
said  that  his  inspiration  in  science  was  especially  due  to  Smith 
and  Schweitzer,  both  of  whom  were  greatly  beloved  by  the  stu- 
dents, because  they  really  tried  to  develop  the  young  people  by  a 
personal  interest  in  their  intellectual  progress. 

Many  students  at  college  grope  in  the  dark  and  waste  time, 
merely  finding  the  way  to  knowledge,  because  no  one  of  greater 
experience  is  approachable  as  a  guide  to  them.  On  account  of 
this  need  of  competent  guidance,  President  Woodrow  Wilson, 
while  at  the  head  of  Princeton  University,  introduced  a  system 
by  which  all  students  were  brought  into  close  personal  contact 
with  the  members  of  the  Faculty,  each  professor  and  instructor 
being  assigned  responsible  advisory  power  over  a  small  group  of 
young  men,  and  all  of  them  thus  cared  for  systematically.  This 
is  an  educational  reform  of  the  first  magnitude,  and  will  have 
to  come  into  universal  use  before  our  Universities  can  be  made 
really  efficient.  The  problem  of  developing  professors  of  the 
highest  class  is  not  yet  solved,  and  presents  great  difficulty  in  view 
of  the  inadequate  rewards  of  intellectual  effort.  In  our  modern 
universities,  overcrowded  with  numbers,  this  condition  is  greatly 
aggravated;  but  at  the  University  of  Missouri,  in  Mr.  See's  day, 


34  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

the  numbers  were  not  so  great,  and  close  personal  contact  with 
the  professor  was  possible.  And  it  happened  that  the  quality  of 
some  of  the  professors  was  so  high  that  it  could  hardly  be  improved 
on  anywhere.  Thus  Ficklin  was  a  good  teacher,  clear-headed, 
just,  honest  and  candid  in  all  his  work;  while  Smith  and 
Schweitzer  had  all  these  high  qualities,  and  besides  were  attrac- 
tive to  students  and  inspired  them  with  energy  and  ambition 
for  high  scholarship  and  research. 

At  that  time  the  Missouri  University  was,  properly  speaking, 
only  a  college,  but  it  was  a  good  college;  because  the  elective 
system  had  not  weakened  the  vigor  of  the  college  curriculum.  The 
courses  for  degrees  were  prescribed,  and  such  as  might  properly 
be  considered  appropriate,  though  some  of  the  studies  gave  only 
an  introduction  to  the  different  subjects. 

It  was  in  this  second  year  also  that  Mr.  See  made  a  great  dis- 
covery in  the  University  library  —  a  copy  of  Bowditch's  Trans- 
lation of  Laplace's  Mecanique  Celeste,  bound  in  boards,  with  the 
leaves  uncut.  Apparently  it  had  never  been  used  by  anyone,  or, 
if  at  all,  very  little.  Of  course  no  other  student  had  ever  thought 
of  looking  into  this  great  work.  But  no  sooner  was  the  discovery 
of  the  monumental  work  made  by  Mr.  See  than  he  sought  access 
to  it  daily.  At  first  the  work  could  not  be  withdrawn  from  the 
library,  and  could  only  be  read  during  office  hours,  but  by  the 
time  the  session  of  1886-7  came  around  Mr.  See  was  sufficiently 
established  in  the  confidence  of  everybody  that  the  librarian 
allowed  him  to  take  volumes  of  the  precious  work  home  with 
him. 

Mr.  See's  enthusiasm  over  the  Mecanique  Celeste  of  Laplace 
knew  no  bounds.  It  was  his  subject  of  meditation  day  and  night, 
Sundays  and  holidays.  The  other  students  might  go  in  for  sports 
or  games,  but  he  would  be  found  working  at  the  Mecanique  Celeste 
of  Laplace  of  the  Principia  of  Newton.  Mr.  See  purchased  a  copy 
of  Newton's  Principia  in  the  autumn  of  1886  and  studied  it  zeal- 
ously. The  Bowditch  translation  of  the  Mecanique  Celeste  was 
much  more  expensive  and  difficult  to  get.  But  he  could  not  rest 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  35 

content  without  it,  so  that  in  the  summer  of  1887  he  had  the 
Columbia  book  store  of  Kirtley  &  Phillips  advertise  for  it  in  New 
York,  and  in  November,  1887,  they  obtained  for  Mr.  See  a  copy 
originally  purchased  by  Dr.  John  Sage,  of  Sag  Harbor,  Long  Is- 
land, at  the  time  of  publication  (1839),  and  left  by  him  to  his  cous- 
in, Wm.  S.  Pelletrean,  of  Southampton,  Suffolk  Co.,  New  York. 

This  great  work  is  directly  responsible  for  Mr.  See's  becoming 
an  astronomer  —  it  was  the  determining  factor  in  fixing  his  career 
in  science.  Prior  to  this  time  Mr.  See  had  been  aroused  to  enthu- 
siasm for  science  by  the  writings  of  Humboldt  and  Newton;  but 
as  the  nebular  hypothesis  had  interested  him  from  boyhood,  since 
his  purchase  of  Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Astronomy  (Oct.  1, 
1883)  it  only  required  the  greatest  work  of  Laplace  to  make  him 
supremely  happy*. 

Probably  it  was  his  secret  hope  that  he  might  sometime  add 
to  Laplace's  work,  but  he  never  dared  to  believe  that  his  own  re- 
searches in  cosmogony,  twenty  years  later,  would  supplant  those 
of  Laplace.  Naturally  there  was  a  vast  difference  between  read- 
ing a  work  of  Laplace,  and  meditating  over  his  ideas,  and  devising 
mathematical  proofs  and  methods  to  supplant  the  theories  of  the  great 
French  geometer.  This  was  to  be  Mr.  See's  labor  during  the  next 
twenty  years,  and  well  was  it  worth  this  effort,  since  it  has  now 
given  us  an  entirely  new  theory  of  the  formation  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  To  the  State  of  Missouri  has  come  the  imperishable  honor 
of  discovering  the  laws  of  the  development  of  the  solar  system, 
which  will  mark  an  epoch  in  astronomy  not  inferior  to  those  made 
by  Copernicus,  Kepler  and  Newton. 

During  the  summer  of  1887,  Professor  Ficklin  died,  after  an 
illness  of  some  months,  from  a  kind  of  dropsy.  He  had  already 
seen  Mr.  See  grapple  with  the  different  branches  of  Mathematics, 
through  calculus  and  analytical  geometry,  and  also  Astronomy. 
He  was  so  impressed  with  Mr.  See's  earnestness  and  reliability 

*  Mr.  See  was  always  a  very  active  worker  in  the  Athenean  Literary  Society, 
and  wrote  numerous  essays  on  scientific  subjects,  especially  on  the  discoveries  of 
Laplace  relating  to  the  Mechanics  of  the  Heavens. 


36  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

that  he  gave  to  this  undergraduate  student  the  keys  to  the  Obser- 
vatory, and  invited  him  to  make  free  use  of  all  the  instruments. 
Considering  how  tenacious  Ficklin  was  in  holding  on  to  the  per- 
sonal supervision  of  the  Observatory  this  was  a  remarkable  testi- 
monial to  the  esteem  in  which  young  Mr.  See  was  held.  It  used 
to  be  said  by  the  students  of  the  University  that  by  hard  work 
during  his  first  three  years  See  had  made  such  a  reputation  for 
high  standing  and  scholarship  that  after  that  time  any  Professor 
would  give  him  the  highest  grades  without  question.  But  of 
course  Mr.  See  never  ceased  to  work,  any  more  than  he  has  since 
leaving  the  University. 

During  the  summers  of  1887  and  1888  he  remained  in  Colum- 
bia, hard  at  work  in  the  Observatory,  returning  to  his  home  at 
Montgomery  City  only  for  short  visits.  He  began  the  work  under 
Ficklin,  and  after  his  death  carried  it  on  under  Smith,  who  was 
later  given  charge  of  the  department  of  mathematics  and  astron- 
nomy.  Thus  for  two  years  before  graduation  Mr.  See  was  actually 
in  charge  of  the  Observatory,  and  did  all  kinds  of  work,  from  de- 
termining the  latitude,  with  the  altazimuth,  to  observing  the 
planets,  comets,  sun  spots  and  prominences,  with  the  7>£-mch 
equatorial. 

Among  the  first  objects  which  especially  interested  Mr.  See 
were  the  double  stars  —  gigantic  systems  of  double  suns  revolving 
about  one  another  under  the  Newtonian  law  of  gravitation.  Hav- 
ing once  seen  such  double  stars  as  Mizar  in  the  Great  Bear,  he 
never  afterwards  lost  sight  of  these  systems,  but  kept  them  con- 
stantly in  mind,  and  in  1889  wrote  his  graduating  thesis  on  the 
"Origin  of  Binary  Stars"  to  which  was  awarded  the  Missouri 
astronomical  medal. 

Mr.  See  took  to  the  problems  of  cosmogony,  on  account  of 
his  interest  in  Laplace's  Nebular  Hypothesis,  from  boyhood  days. 
Professor  George  H.  Darwin,  of  Cambridge,  England,  had  recently 
modified  Laplace's  theory  to  some  extent;  and  Mr.  See's  under- 
graduate effort  was  to  consider  the  influence  of  tidal  friction  on 
systems  such  as  the  double  stars.  The  thesis  was  very  notable, 


MR.  T.  J.  J.  SEE,  AS  HE  APPEARED  AT  THE  AGE  OF  TWENTY-TWO. 
From  a  photograph  by  Douglass,  Columbia,  Mo.,  1888,  about  eight  months 
before  Mr.  See  graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  37 

as  a  beginning  of  the  more  celebrated  researches  since  carried  out 
at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  his  monumental  work,  Researches 
on  the  Evolution  of  the  Stellar  Systems,  Vol.  I,  1896,  and  Vol.  II» 
1910. 

During  the  period  of  his  student  days,  Mr.  See  was  always  the 
most  respected  and  influential  student  in  the  University.  He 
was  the  one  whose  work  had  weight  with  both  students  and  facul- 
ty; yet  in  a  student  assembly  he  was  not  so  popular  as  some  of 
the  more  reckless  talkers,  and  on  one  or  two  occasions  they  were 
preferred  over  him,  as  editors  of  the  college  paper.  While  Mr. 
See  was  open  and  democratic  in  manner,  he  was  dignified  and  a 
little  austere  by  his  high  standing  as  a  student.  Then,  too,  he  was 
a  Greek  fraternity  man  —  a  member  of  the  Phi  Delta  Theta  — 
and  that  tended  to  set  an  element  of  the  "Barbarians"  against 
him.  He  had  positive  convictions  and  dared  to  express  them,  so 
that,  as  usually  happens  with  positive  characters,  he  had  very 
devoted  friends,  and  a  few  enemies  among  a  class  whose  methods 
were  none  too  scrupulous. 

The  events  of  the  last  year,  1888-9,  showed  his  unquestioned 
supremacy  in  the  most  conclusive  manner.  There  were  a  series 
of  crying  abuses  in  the  University,  now  growing  noticeably  worse* 
and  Dr.  Laws,  the  President,  had  been  there  so  long  that  he  was 
set  in  his  way,  and  would  do  nothing  to  alleviate  the  dissatis- 
faction. The  complaints  ran  all  the  way  from  incompetent  pro- 
fessors to  injustice  to  students  and  general  lack  of  progressiveness, 
and  in  some  cases  involved  bad  faith  with  the  people  of  the  State. 
Senator  Morton  of  the  visiting  board  appointed  by  the  Governor 
reported  to  the  Legislature  early  in  the  year  that  things  were  not 
satisfactory  at  the  University.  A  great  commotion  followed 
among  the  students,  and  then  a  special  committee  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives  was  appointed  to  investigate  the 
University,  at  the  head  of  which  Hon.  Champ  Clark  was  placed, 
because  he  was  the  recognized  leader  in  the  Legislature. 

The  committee  visited  the  University,  held  a  long  and  search- 
ing investigation,  with  the  result  that  the  Legislature  reorganized 


38  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

the  Board  of  Curators  and  removed  Dr.  Laws,  by  a  rider  attached 
to  the  appropriation  bill.  Above  all  others,  Mr.  See  was  the 
student  on  whom  the  insurgents  at  the  University  had  to  rely  for 
the  management  of  their  fight  for  the  overthrow  of  the  old  regime. 
He  desired  to  keep  out  of  the  fight,  but  could  not  do  it,  with  the 
faculty  split,  and  most  of  his  devoted  teachers  on  the  side  of  the 
insurgents. 

Rather  than  desert  his  devoted  teachers,  to  whom  he  owed 
so  much,  he  took  the  side  against  the  president,  who  had  very 
antiquated  methods  and  had  much  outlived  his  usefulness.  When 
the  contest  began  in  earnest,  the  students  came  to  Mr.  See  and 
said:  "Now,  See,  you  must  come  to  our  support.  You  have 
influence  and  prestige  here  and  you  alone  can  save  the  day  for  us." 
With  great  reluctance,  but  from  a  sense  of  duty,  Mr.  See  went  over 
to  the  cause  of  progress,  and  did  the  hard  work  of  making  the 
movement  a  success.  Everyone  trusted  See,  and  he  gathered  all 
the  data,  drew  the  questions,  and  conducted  the  prosecution  for 
the  students. 

Hon.  Champ  Clark  conducted  the  inquiry  from  the  legisla- 
tive point  of  view,  and  afterwards  carried  through  the  heavy  work 
^reorganization  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  And  a  won- 
derfully able  effort  he  made.  It  saved  the  life  of  the  University, 
and  enabled  it  to  enter  upon  a  period  of  progress  and  greatly  in- 
creased usefulness.  By  this  well  nigh  incomparable  service  to  the 
State,  Mr.  Clark  earned  the  title  of  "Founder  of  the  University," 
in  distinction  from  the  College,  which  it  had  been  before,  and  of 
which  Major  James  S.  Rollins  was  justly  entitled  to  be  called  the 
Father. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  say  anything  more  about  Mr.  See's 
college  days,  except  to  include  here  the  commencement  program, 
which  tells  its  own  story: 


\/ 


Jv|issouri 


Thursday  Morning, 


Proqrarp, 


Music— Prayer  -  M  usic. 
9    -    -    -    .    -    John  Locke  and  His  Theories  of  Education. 

RICHARD  GEORGE  HADELICH,  Pe.  P. 
English  Prize  Essay,    -------    The  Poetry  of  Browning. 

CHARLES  HENRY  STUMBERG,A.  B.,  L.B. 

n^cusia. 

Stophens  Medal  Oration, The  World's  Heroes 

GEORGE  FAUST  YOUMANS.  S.  B. 

Astronomical  Prize  Thesis,,   -----    Origin  of  Binary  Stars. 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE,  A.  B.,  L.  B.,  S.  B. 


Valedictory  Address  of  haw  Class. 

BYRON  BUCKINGHAM  BEERY,  LL.  B. 

Valedictory  Address  of  Academic  Classes. 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE,  A.  B.,  L.  B.,  S.  B. 


DELIVERY  OF  DIPLOMflS  AND  PRIZES. 

Stephens  Medal,    ......    GEORGE  FAUST  YOUMANS. 

Astronomical  Medal,    -    THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE. 
McAnally  Medal,    -    *  -    -    -    CHARLES  HENRY  STUMBERG. 
Appleton  Prize,   ........    JAMES  HENRY  COONS. 

31.  C.  "Lilly  Sword  Prize,   .....    LUTHER  YAGER  EERR. 

A  Salute  of  Forty-Two  Guns  by  University  Cadets, 

LIEUT.  E.  H.  CROWDER,  U.  S.  Army,  Commandant. 


OIF1    1889. 

ACADEMIC  COLLEGE. 
First  Rank  (Av.  grade  00-06..) 

Thos.  TefTerson  Jackson  See,  A.  B.,  L.  B.,  S.  B.       die  Belle  Denny,  S.  B. 
Charles  Henry  Stumberg,  A,  B.,  L.  B.  George  Faust  Youmans,  8.  B. 

Curtis  Fletcher  Marbut,  S.  B.  Samuel  David  uromer,  S.  B. 

Louis  Elmer  Pitts,  A.  B. 

Second  Rank .  ( \ v.  grade  70-90 . ) 

Myron  Alfred  Cttruer,  S.  B.  Elston  Holmes  Lonsdale,  S.  B. 

Charles  Breckwjridge  Farls,  L.  B.  Mitchell  Cross  Shelton,  A.  B.  ' 

James  Tliaddeus  Duk,  S.  B.  Sterling  Price  Dorman,  L.  B. 

LAW  COLLEGE.  (Degree  Of  LL.  B.) 

BACHELOR  OF  LAWS,  Robert  Terrel  Halnes. 

ftim  taude.  Frank  M.  Howell, 

Byron  Buckingham  Beery.  Thomas  Henry  Jenkins. 

George  Alvin  Dabbs.  Charles  Fielding  Keller, 

BACHELOR  OF  LAWS.  Wlliam  Echols  Ralney, 

William  Kennedy  Amlck,  Joseph  Johnston  Reynolds. 

Rudolph.Bahn,  John  Fletcher  Sharp. 

Marion  Richard  Btgs:sT  William  Henry  Utz. 

Robert  Alexander  IJrown,  Samuel  Newton  YanPool, 

James  Peddicord  Chlnn,  Conrad  Waidecker, 

Eugene  Warrlngton  Couey,  Sam  Mason  Wallace. 

Thomas  Jefferson  Dlckson,  John  Samuel  Wash. 
William  Henry.Young. 

ENGINEERING  COLLEGE. 

John  Thomas  Gnrrett,  C.  E.  William  Florlan  Seldel,  C.  E. 

Alexander  Maitund.  C.  E.  Kirby  Calhoun  Weedln.  0.  El 

Orvilie  Hlckman  Browning  Turner,  Top'l  Eng'r. 

CERTIFICATE  IN  SURVEYING. 

Oliver  Neal  Axtell .  Charles  Decatur  Potts.. 

Charles  Alden  Bonfils.  Samuel  Glrard  Ratekln. 

Edgar  Fisher  Fielding.  Samuel  William  Shinkle. 

Bernard  Wilbern  Hays.  Theodore  Arthur  Sturnberg. 

MEDICAL  COLLEGE  (Degree  of  M.  D.) 

[Eighty-three  young  men  were  graduated  from  section  No.  2  (Missouri  Medical  Col- 
lege,  St.  Louis,)  in  March.  Of  this  number,Uiose  given  belovr  received  the  joint  Diploma 
of  section  No.  l  and  section  No.  2. 

Arthur  L,  Engle.  Roscbe  w.  Maintz. 

George  J.  Field.  John  D.  Proweil. 

George  E.  Gray.  Robert  W.  Renwlck. 

Gustave  A.  Keehn.  Rufus  B.  Schoffeld. 

John  L.  McGhee.  James  H.  Smith. 

AlfordR.  McLeod. 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,   (Degree  Of  B.  A.  S.) 
Thomas  Doss. 

-NORMAL  COLLEGE. 
Degree  of  Pe.  B.  (Bachelor  of  Pedagogics.) 

Ulie  Belle  Denny,  S.  B.  James  Thaddeus  Dick,  8.  K. 

Samuel  David  Gromer,  S.  B.  Elston  Holmes  Lonsdale.  S.  B. 

Myron  Alfred  Corner,  is.  B.  Sterling  Price  Dorman,  L,  B. 

Charies  L.  Mosely,  L.  B.  '82. 

Degree  of  Pe.  P.  (Principal  In  Pedagogics.) 

Richard  George  lladelicli.  Fannie  McNutt. 

Una  Verda  Peters.  John  Charles  Storm. 

Annn  Calvin  Payne. .  Noah  Els  worth  Sutton. 

Minnie  Ann  Pettinglll.  Walter  CaldvveU  Cox. 

Eva  Liggett.  Jennie  Lorena  Hall. 

Anna  Maud  Reed.  Annie  Margery  Byrne. 

Carrie  Man rer.    .  Lula  Graves. 

Maggie  Chapman  Maupln.  Ida  Orissa  Post, 

Ida  May  Knepper.  Eva  Levy, 

wiiber  Flsk  Johnston.  Ruby  Moss  Westlake. 

Gilbert  Newton  Harrison.  Ella  Bowden. 

Kilen  Winchester  Dorsett.  Amanda  Bay  Ruc.'cer. 

Georgie  Olive  Nagel.  Brookey  Ann  Yowell. 
Sallle  Pierce. 

MASTER'S  DEGREES,.A.  M. 
Thomas  L.  Rubey,  A.  B.  '85.  Edgar  D.  Watson,  A.  B.  '86. 

L.  M. 
Payne  A.  Boulton,  L.  B.  '85.  Edward  E.  Longan,  L.  B.  -8<> 

S.  M.  % 
Wm.  Wallace  Clendenin,  S.  B.  'S6.  *  Ida  May  Cleudenin,  S.  B.  '86. 


Honorable  flftention. 

1888-9. 

All  students,  who  have  finished  the  work  of  any  department, 
and  who  have  reached  in  it  an  average  grade  of  96  to  100,  shall  be 
named  by  the  Professor  in  charge  of  such  department  in  his  annual 
report  to  the  President  of  the  University  for  HONORABLE  MENTION  in 
the  catalogue ;  this  fact  of  honorable  mention  shall  likewise  be 
stated  on  the  Commencement  programme  tn  the  case  of  graduates. 
— [From  rules  for  grading  students,  adopted  April,  1884.] 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

MYRON  ALFRED  CORNER. 
CURTIS  FLETCHER  MARBUT. 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE. 
GEORGE  FAUST  YOUMANS. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ENGLISH. 

CHARLES  HENRY  STUMBERG. 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  GEOLOOY   AND    MINERALOGY. 

ELSTON  HOLMES  LONSDALE. 
CURTIS  FLETCHER  MARBUT. 
MITCHELL  CROSS  SHELTON. 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSOtf  SEE. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  HEBREW. 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  LATIN. 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE. 
CHARLES  HENRY  STUMBERG. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  METAPHYSICS. 

JAMES  THADDEUS  DICK. 
CHARLES  HENRY  STUMBERG. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  MATHEMATICS  AND  ASTRONOMY. 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  BIOLOGY. 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACKSON  SEE. 
THE  JAMES  S.  ROLLINS  UNIVERSITY  SCHOLARSHIPS. 

These  scholarships  have  been  awarded  as  follows : 

College  of  Arts,  A.  B.  Course... — JAMES  HENRY  COONS. 

College  of  Arts,  S.  B.  Course .....^......CHARLES  PAGE  WILLIAMS, 

College  of  Agriculture — JOHN  LEWIS  TANDY. 

College  of  Law...... „ JAMES  L.  NICHOLAS. 

College  of  Medicine. JOHN  GARTH  RUCKEJ*. 

College  of  Engineering,  C.  E.  Course- ......  FRANK  BLAIR  WILLIAMS. 

Next  session  begins  September  10th. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  43 

On  account  of  the  action  of  the  Legislature  in  reorganizing 
the  University,  this  commencement  was  notable.  Some  weeks 
before  it  occurred  Dr.  Laws  had  spoken  before  the  Legislature,  in 
Jefferson  City,  but  finding  the  tide  there  too  strong  for  him,  he 
had  presented  his  resignation  to  the  Governor,  who  held  also  the 
resignations  of  all  the  Curators.  The  Governor  thereupon  ap- 
pointed a  new  Board  of  Curators,  met  with  them  at  Columbia, 
and  had  them  accept  the  resignation  of  the  President  of  the  Uni- 
versity. This  carried  out  the  decree  of  the  Legislature,  and  the 
University  began  to  enter  upon  a  new  period  of  growth  and  greatly 
increased  usefulness. 

Governor  Francis  was  always  capable  of  doing  the  best  thing, 
and  is  known  as  the  best  Governor  Missouri  ever  had.  By  his 
presence  at  the  Commencement  he  raised  the  spirits  of  everyone, 
and  delivered  the  diplomas  to  the  graduating  class,  at  the  head  of 
which  stood  Mr.  See,  a  great  admirer  of  the  Governor.  When 
Mr.  See  had  delivered  the  Valedictory  address  and  received  the 
Medal  for  his  Thesis  in  Astronomy,  the  Governor  remarked  that 
he  was  the  hero  of  the  day;  afterwards  introduced  him  to  Mrs. 
Francis,  and  offered  him  an  official  letter  of  introduction  with  the 
Seal  of  the  State  of  Missouri  on  it,  and  duly  countersigned  by  the 
Secretary  of  State,  which  proved  of  great  value  during  his  studies 
and  travels  abroad. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
1889-1892. 

THREE  AND  A  HALF  YEARS  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  BERLIN. 

POSTGRADUATE  RECORD  DISTINGUISHED  FOR  SCHOLARSHIP  AND  THE 
PUBLICATION  OF  FAMOUS  THESIS  ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  DOUBLE 
STARS. 

^IMMEDIATELY  after  graduation  at  the  University  of  Mis- 
Jjl  souri,  June  6,  1889,  Mr.  See  returned  home  for  a  short  visit, 
and  then  proceeded  to  Berlin,  where  he  spent  the  next  three 
and  a  half  years  in  postgraduate  study.  \  Noah  See  naturally  was 
greatly  rejoiced  over  the  high  honors  which  his  son  had  won,  as 
the  result  of  five  years  of  hard  work  at  the  University  of  Missouri* 
and  cordially  approved  his  plan  for  study  abroad.  He  realized 
the  high  promise  of  eminent  distinction  which  the  career  of  his 
son  held  out,  and  he  desired  to  support  him  in  every  possible  way. 
The  visit  home,  however,  was  saddened  by  the  father's  failing 
health.  It  was  considered  very  doubtful  if  he  would  live  to  see 
his  son  return  from  Germany,  for  the  stay  abroad  was  to  extend 
over  several  years. 

Yet  with  characteristic  fatherly  affection  Noah  See  desired 
his  son  to  go  on  with  his  educational  career,  which  promised  event- 
ually to  shed  such  renown  on  the  family  name.  Accordingly  he 
explained  to  his  son  the  provisions  of  his  Will,  which  made  special 
arrangements  to  enable  him  to  complete  his  education  in  Europe; 
and  the  executors  were  carefully  enjoined  to  see  that  this  trust 
was  faithfully  executed,  the  money  thus  advanced  to  Thomas  J. 
J.  See  to  be  deducted  from  his  share  of  the  estate,  on  final  settle- 
ment. With  this  provision  for  his  financial  support  assured,  Mr- 
See  could  go  abroad  with  definite  hope  of  completing  his  course 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  45 

of  postgraduate  study  and  obtaining  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philo- 
sophy, which  would  give  him  a  favorable  start  in  the  world. 

Young  Mr.  See  was  very  loath  to  leave  his  father,  in  his 
feeble  condition,  but  as  the  latter  was  well  cared  for  at  home,  he 
finally  started  for  Europe,  his  father  merely  cautioning  him  not 
to  work  too  hard,  and  to  "  Remember  that  Rome  was  not  built  in 
a  day."  After  reaching  Berlin  he  corresponded  with  his  father 
regularly  till  within  a  few  weeks  of  the  latter's  death,  which  came 
earlier  than  had  been  expected,  Feb.  9,  1890.  Noah  See  showed 
a  constant  interest  in  all  that  his  son  did,  and  was  very  proud  of 
the  great  name  he  was  making  in  the  world  of  science. 

One  of  Mr.  See's  chief  teachers  at  Berlin  was  the  celebrated 
Professor  Helmholtz,  and  the  young  man  sent  a  picture  of  this 
master  of  science  to  his  father,  who  had  it  framed  and  hung  on 
the  wall  of  his  room.  If  Noah  See  could  have  foreseen  that  his 
son  twenty  years  later  would  have  become  even  more  famous  than 
the  great  Helmholtz,  what  is  there  that  he  would  not  have  done 
for  him?  His  cup  of  joy  would  have  been  filled  to  overflowing! 
Yet  it  is  certain  that  his  father  must  have  expected  for  his  son  a 
great  career,  since  from  boyhood  T.  J.  J.  See  made  good  in  every- 
thing which  he  undertook,  and  even  surpassed  the  expectations 
of  his  best  friends.  It  was  this  characteristic  of  young  Mr.  See 
which  enabled  him  to  triumph  over  all  difficulties,  and  to  gain  a 
decisive  victory  where  others  would  have  failed. 

On  the  way  to  Europe,  Mr.  See  spent  several  days  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  and  saw  the  large  telescope  of  the  Naval  Observ- 
atory, visited  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  at  Baltimore,  where 
he  met  Professor  Rowland;  then  stopped  at  Princeton,  for  a  day 
with  Professor  Young;  sailing  from  New  York  on  the  Etruria, 
June  22,  and  landing  at  Liverpool,  June  30.  From  there  he  pro- 
ceeded to  London,  but  only  remained  overnight,  and  then  visited 
Paris,  for  four  days  at  the  Exposition;  and  finally  started  for 
Berlin,  July  5,  and  reached  his  destination  next  day. 

The  ocean  passage  on  the  Etruria  was  uneventful,  but  London 
impressed  Mr.  See  as  very  noisy  and  as  full  of  rush  as  New  York 


46  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

City.  Paris  had  the  charm  of  great  works  of  art,  and  magnificient 
buildings  and  monuments.  Mr.  See  saw  as  many  of  these  as  he 
could  in  four  days,  with  a  guide  who  knew  the  city.  The  Arc  de 
Triomphe,  Napoleon's  Tomb,  the  Louvre,  the  Pantheon,  various 
museums,  the  Exposition,  the  National  Observatory,  and  the  Pere 
la  Chaise  Cemetery  and  the  grave  of  Laplace  (found  to  have  been 
removed)  all  claimed  his  attention.  At  the  Observatory  Mr.  See 
saw  the  beautiful  statue  of  Leverrier  holding  the  planet  Neptune 
in  his  hand.  As  he  was  not  yet  recognized  as  a  professional  man 
of  science,  but  was  still  a  student,  he  did  not  seek  introductions 
to  the  French  astronomers  and  mathematicians. 

When  Mr.  See  went  to  Europe,  he  did  not  know  a  living  soul 
in  that  part  of  the  world.  His  loneliness  therefore  was  consider- 
able, and  he  desired  to  be  at  the  University  of  Berlin  as  soon  as 
possible.  When  he  reached  there  July  6,  he  found  the  summer 
semester  of  the  University  about  to  close,  and  hence  he  could  do 
nothing  till  the  autumn,  except  perfect  his  knowledge  of  German, 
and  accustom  the  ear  to  the  accent,  so  that  he  could  follow  lec- 
tures when  the  winter  semester  opened,  in  October.  He  located 
at  97  Zimmer  Strasse,  about  half  a  mile  from  the  University,  and 
an  equal  distance  from  the  Royal  Observatory.  This  was  a  Pen- 
sion, or  boarding  house  with  meals,  and  was  kept  by  Frau  Kahrn. 
And  while  many  of  the  boarders  were  transients,  coming  and  going 
from  time  to  time,  others  were  there  for  whole  seasons,  and  some 
for  several  years.  Members  of  the  nobility,  such  as  counts  and 
barons,  and  diplomats,  as  well  as  high  ranking  officers  of  the  Ger- 
man army  dined  there,  and  attended  the  dances  held  in  the  Pen- 
sion occasionally.  And  whilst  Mr.  See  was  too  seriously  occupied 
with  his  studies  to  take  part  in  such  gay  functions,  he  saw  some- 
thing of  them,  and  became  acquainted  with  citizens  of  various 
countries  —  France,  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  England, 
Italy,  and  Austria,  but  naturally  the  Germans  predominated. 

Very  soon  after  his  arrival  in  Berlin  Mr.  See  had  called  on 
some  of  the  leading  professors  of  the  University,  to  find  out  what 
studies  he  ought  to  take  up  preparatory  to  the  lectures.  Thus 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  47 

he  called  on  Helmholtz,  Weierstrass,  Fuchs,  Foerster,  and  several 
others  of  the  more  renowned  of  his  future  teachers.  It  turned 
out  that  Professor  Weierstrass  was  ill,  but  this  illustrious  mathe- 
matician received  him  with  great  kindness,  and  carefully  advised 
him  regarding  the  books  which  should  be  read,  and  then  referred 
him  to  Professor  Fuchs,  as  he  (Weierstrass)  had  little  hope  of  being 
able  to  lecture  again.  In  their  turn  Fuchs  and  Foerster  proved 
equally  kind  and  helpful.  Helmholtz  too  was  approachable,  and 
kind,  but  a  man  of  few  words,  from  a  habit  he  had  learned  in  child- 
hood; and  thus  not  easy  to  get  much  out  of.  Lord  Rayleigh  told 
Mr.  See  when  he  visited  London  in  1892  that  he  had  once  enter- 
tained Helmholtz  in  England,  and  found  the  same  difficulty  in 
conversing  with  him. 

The  lectures  of  Helmholtz  were  on  mathematical  physics, 
and  naturally  of  the  finest  quality;  for  in  the  lecture  room  he 
had  to  talk.  The  finest  lecturer  in  physics,  however,  was  Pro- 
fessor Kundt,  who  was  also  a  delightful  man  to  work  with  in  the 
laboratory.  In  mathematics  the  best  lecturer  was  Fuchs,  who  had  a 
slow  methodical  way  which  enabled  the  student  to  follow  every 
step  with  entire  clearness.  Other  important  lecturers  in  mathe- 
matics from  whom  Mr.  See  profited  were  Knoblauch  and  Schwartz; 
and  in  astronomy,  Foerster,  Tietjen,  Lehmann-Filhes,  and  Brendel. 

In  practical  astronomy  Mr.  See  was  working  with  Professor  V. 
Knorre,  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  and  for  several  months  during 
the  summer  of  1891,  in  charge  of  the  9-inch  equatorial  telescope, 
just  as  he  had  formerly  been  in  charge  of  the  7>£  inch  telescope  at 
the  University  of  Missouri.  This  9-inch  telescope  is  famous  as  the 
one  which  Dr.  Galle  used  in  discovering  Neptune,  Sept.  23,  1846. 
Mr.  See  used  it  for  measuring  double  stars,  and  his  results  were 
later  included  in  one  of  the  volumes  of  the  Royal  Observatory. 

The  fact  that  Mr.  See,  as  an  American  student,  had  these 
priviliges  showed  the  entire  confidence  and  esteem  in  which  he 
was  held  by  the  German  professors.  He  had  access  to  the  Ob- 
servatory Library,  and  a  key  to  the  building,  so  that  he  could  come 
and  go  when  he  chose.  When  observing  with  the  9-inch  telescope 


48  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

in  1891  Mr.  See  used  to  work  till  daylight,  and  Professor  Foerster, 
Director  of  the  Observatory,  was  more  than  once  surprised  to  see 
him  going  home  after  the  members  of  his  own  family  were  pre- 
paring for  breakfast.  It  was  by  such  serious  effort  that  Mr.  See 
made  such  a  great  reputation  at  the  University  of  Berlin.  Coming 
there  in  1889  without  a  friend,  he  left  there  in  1892  with  everyone 
his  friend  and  unwilling  to  part  with  him. 

Once  in  1892  Emperor  William  visited  the  Observatory. 
While  entertaining  His  Majesty,  Professor  Foerster  told  of  the  fine 
work  being  done  there  by  a  young  American,  Herr  See.  In  this 
way  Mr.  See's  fame  spread  to  every  department  of  the  great  Uni- 
versity, and  in  fact  all  over  Germany,  and  even  to  Italy,  France, 
Russia,  and  England.  It  happened  that  in  going  back  and  forth 
to  the  University  Mr.  See  would  pass  the  Emperor  almost  daily, 
driving  in  his  carriage,  and  dressed  as  a  General  of  the  German 
army.  The  Emperor  always  returned  the  salute,  in  military 
fashion,  of  those  who  greeted  him  on  the  street;  and  thus  Mr.  See 
became  accustomed  to  this  military  salute,  but  of  course  he  had 
no  occasion  to  be  presented  to  the  Emperor. 

When  the  Emperor  of  Russia  visited  Berlin,  in  1891,  Mr.  See 
was  admitted  to  the  Ministry  of  Education,  and  thus  obtained  a 
close  and  excellent  view  of  the  great  military  parade,  with  the 
Emperors  of  Germany  and  Russia,  Bismarck,  and  other  high  offi- 
cials. These  great  military  parades  are  one  of  the  striking  features 
of  life  in  Berlin,  and  as  the  parades  pass  right  in  front  of  the  Uni- 
versity, the  students  naturally  see  much  of  them. 

The  study  of  the  art  treasures  in  the  museums  of  Berlin  was 
one  of  the  chief  delights  of  Mr.  See's  stay  abroad.  Sunday  was 
free  to  all,  and  on  many  Sunday  afternoons  Mr.  See  would  wend 
his  way  to  one  of  the  museums  or  to  the  National  gallery,  to  study 
archselogy,  statuary,  painting,  or  some  other  form  of  the  fine  arts. 

The  course  of  lectures  in  the  history  of  Greek  philosophy 
under  the  renowned  Professor  Edward  Zeller  was  especially  at- 
tractive to  Mr.  See,  for  he  revered  Zeller  as  a  kind  of  modern  Plato, 
then  nearly  eighty  years  of  age,  but  working  on  with  the  unabated 


!2  i 


ALEXANDER  VON  HUMBOLDT. 

(From  the  portrait  by  Schrader,  in  possession  of  Albert  Havemeyer,  Esq.,  New  York;  Guyot's  Physical  Geography). 

It  was  in  May,  1802,  that  Humboldt  was  exploring  the' great  volcanoes  and  other  peaks  of  the  Andes  about  Quito,  and 
forming  the  impressions  which  so  powerfully  influenced  his  writings.  Exactly  104  years  later,  May,  1906,  an  interest  in 
Earthquakes  and  Volcanoes  which  Humboldt  and  his  writings  had  awakened  in  boyhood,  enabled  Professor  See  to  discover 
the  true  laws  of  Earthquakes  and  Mountain  Formation,  as  a  result  of  the  earthquake  at  San  Francisco,  and  the  revival  of 
early  studies  in  the  Physics  of  the  Earth. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  49 

zeal  and  enthusiasm  of  youth.  The  great  Zeller  literally  lived 
for  truth,  like  Plato  in  ancient  times,  and  was  so  revered  by  all 
that  Mr.  See  was  especially  proud  to  have  this  venerable  and  good 
man  as  one  of  his  examiners,  when  he  made  his  doctor's  degree, 
December  10,  1892. 

Before  such  examinations  are  held  the  candidate  for  the  de- 
gree, in  evening  dress  and  white  gloves,  calls  on  the  Professors 
chosen  as  his  examiners,  by  consent  of  the  university  dean,  and 
invites  them  to  be  present  and  take  part  in  the  examination.  When 
Mr.  See  called  on  Professor  Zeller  he  found  the  venerable  philos- 
opher in  his  study,  with  a  book  in  hand,  but  with  sight  so  defective 
that  it  had  to  be  held  at  very  close  range.  If  an  aged  professor 
has  such  enthusiasm  for  "Light,  more  Light,"  as  Goethe  said, 
how  much  more  zeal,  thought  Mr.  See,  ought  a  young  man  have 
for  the  advancement  of  truth?  The  effect  of  Teller's  example  on 
Mr.  See  was  profound,  though  no  one  ever  had  need  to  tell  him  to 
work;  yet  in  adversity  it  is  said  that  this  recollection  has  more 
than  once  sustained  him. 

One  other  very  inspiring  influence  was  Mr.  See's  visits  to  the 
country  seat  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  at  Tageldorf,  a  suburb 
of  Berlin.  Here  the  student  who  read  the  Cosmos  in  boyhood 
beheld  the  homes  of  the  Humboldt  brothers  —  Wilhelm,  the 
founder  of  the  Berlin  University,  and  Alexander,  the  great  natural- 
ist —  and  often  visited  the  graves  of  these  illustrious  men  in  the 
pine  forest  north  of  the  house,  to  pluck  an  ivy  souvenir,  or  to  view 
the  beautiful  park  about  it,  with  the  tawny  deer  playing  among 
the  bushes.  As  Alexander  von  Humboldt  had  been  the  inspira- 
tion of  Mr.  See's  boyhood  days,  and  now,  by  good  fortune,  he 
attended  the  University  founded  by  Wilhelm,  and  he  himself 
wished  to  be  an  investigator  of  the  physical  universe,  the  pilgrim- 
age was  natural  and  appropriate.  Besides,  Mr.  See's  old  teacher 
Professor  Paul  Schweitzer,  had  been  born  in  Berlin,  and  had  acted 
as  assistant  to  Gustave  Rose,  the  eminent  chemist  who  accom- 
panied Alexander  von  Humboldt  on  the  trip  to  Central  Asia. 
Thus  he  was  drawn  to  the  home  of  the  Humboldts  by  ties  of  pecu- 


50  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

liar  interest,  while  his  own  thoughts  were  centered  on  the  study 
of  the  physical  universe. 

During  the  stay  of  three  years  at  Berlin,  Mr.  See  often  visited 
Potsdam,  to  see  the  palaces,  and  the  astrophysical  observatory; 
so  that  he  formed  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  all  the  surround- 
ings of  the  German  capital.  Mr.  See  was  especially  impressed 
with  the  classic  style  in  art  and  architecture  so  generally  followed 
by  the  Germans;  and  with  the  classic  spirit  in  the  University  of 
Berlin,  which  was  originally  introduced  by  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt 
and  his  contemporaries  and  firmly  maintained  in  more  recent 
times.  Without  a  classic  education  Mr.  See  would  have  been  out 
of  sympathy  with  his  beautiful  surroundings,  but  as  he  had  wisely 
pursued  those  very  studies  before  specializing  in  science,  he  could 
in  spirit  visit  Athens  or  Rome  any  Sunday  afternoon,  by  going  to 
the  museum. 

This  awakened  in  Mr.  See  a  profound  interest  in  classic  things, 
and  led  him  to  visit  successively  Italy,  Egypt,  and  Greece.  The 
trip  to  Italy  was  made  in  company  with  Professor  D.  W.  Shea  of 
the  Catholic  University,  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  March  and  April, 
1890;  and  included  stops  at  Basel,  Turin,  Milan,  Pisa,  Naples, 
Pompei,  Vesuvius,  Baiae,  Pozzuoli,  Rome,  Florence,  Orvieto, 
Venice,  Verona,  Munich,  and  Leipzig.  It  would  take  up  too  much 
space  to  describe  this  wonderful  journey,  and  we  must  be  content 
with  saying  that  it  included  the  objects  of  highest  intellectual  inter- 
est in  each  place.  Thus,  at  Naples,  Vesuvius  was  ascended,  owing 
to  Mr.  See's  life-long  interest  in  volcanoes,  while  Pompei  was  vis- 
ited for  the  best  available  insight  into  the  Roman  cities  of  the  first 
century,  A.  D.  At  Pisa  and  Florence  on  the  other  hand,  special 
attention  was  paid  to  the  things  associated  with  Galileo, — such  as 
the  leaning  tower,  and  swinging  lamp  at  Pisa,  and  the  first  toy-like 
telescopes  and  other  relics  preserved  at  Florence.  The  grandeur 
and  inspiration  of  the  scenes  and  antiquities  at  Rome  simply  beggar 
description.  It  must  suffice  to  say  that  here  one  is  on  holy  ground, 
and  in  the  Roman  Forum  the  traveler  still  walks  on  the  very  same 
stones  on  which  Caesar's  legions  trod  nearly  2,000  years  ago. 


§1 

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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  51 

The  stay  in  Lower  Egypt  was  limited  to  about  ten  days  (March 
5-15,  1891),  and  Memphis  was  as  far  south  as  Mr.  See  journeyed. 
But  it  enabled  satisfactory  visits  to  be  made  to  the  Pyramids  and 
other  objects  about  Cairo;  gave  good  views  of  the  desert,  and  the 
clear  skies  of  Egypt,  famed  in  the  history  of  astronomy,  as  well  as 
of  the  Southern  Constellations,  such  as  the  Ship  Argus,  with  the 
brilliant  Canopus,  and  the  stars  of  the  Centaur.  At  Alexandria 
effort  was  made  to  locate  the  site  of  the  ancient  library  and 
museum,  where  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy  labored  2,000  years 
ago;  but  so  little  excavation  has  been  done  there  that  the  loca- 
tions are  doubtful,  and  only  the  general  surroundings  of  the 
Alexandrian  school  of  astronomy  could  be  studied  with  any 
success.  Mr.  See  recalls  that  on  the  morning  as  the  ship  from 
Trieste  neared  Alexandria  the  stars  appeared  very  bright, 
and  Venus  actually  shone  by  reflection  from  the  waves  of  the 
sea. 

From  Lower  Egypt  Mr.  See  crossed  over  to  Athens,  for  a  visit 
of  six  weeks  in  Greece.  It  would  take  too  long  to  describe  the 
wonders  of  this  center  of  Greek  civilization,  but  it  may  suffice  to 
say  that  of  all  the  places  visited  by  Mr.  See  in  the  old  .world, 
Athens  is  the  one  he  most  admires,  from  the  point  of  view  of  won- 
derful skies  of  blue  and  violet,  and  other  natural  scenery,  art  and 
history.  As  a  student  trying  to  make  the  most  of  his  opportuni- 
ties he  visited  the  most  interesting  sights,  the  ruins  about  Athens; 
including  all  parts  of  the  Acropolis,  the  temples,  and  the  museums; 
Mount  Pentelikon,  Eleusis,  ^gina,  and  the  Homeric  cities  of 
Tyrins  and  Mycenae;  and  also  Corinth,  Delphi,  and  Olympia. 
The  olive  groves  in  which  Plato  taught  had  an  especial  charm  for 
Mr.  See.  The  visit  to  Delphi  also  proved  of  very  great  interest, 
as  well  as  that  to  Olympia,  where  the  Hermes  of  Parxitelles,  ex- 
cavated by  the  Germans  in  1871  is  recognized  to  be  the  most 
beautiful  statue  ever  created  by  the  chisel  of  a  sculptor.  At  Pyr- 
gos,  on  the  way  to  Olympia,  the  party*  experienced  a  considerable 

*Mr.  See,  two  students  from  Cambridge,  and  two  from  Oxford,  including  Mr. 
J.  L.  Myres,  now  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 


52  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

earthquake,  which  caused  general  alarm  among  the  people.  From 
Olympia  Mr.  See  returned  to  Berlin  by  way  of  Corfu,  Trieste,  and 
Vienna. 

The  spring  vacation  of  1892  was  spent  in  England,  and  was  of 
very  great  importance,  on  account  of  the  lifelong  friendships  which 
Mr.  See  formed  with  eminent  astronomers  and  mathematicians. 
Naturally  he  visited  the  great  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, and  the  principal  places  of  interest  about  London,  such 
as  the  British  Museum,  Natural  History  Museum,  Westminster 
Abbey,  the  House  of  Parliament,  the  Royal  Society,  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society,  Royal  Observatory,  etc.  He  met  and  was  en- 
tertained by  Professors  Darwin  and  Forsyth  in  Cambridge,  and 
by  the  fellows  of  St.  John's  College.  He  was  also  entertained  in 
London  by  Sir  William  and  Lady  Huggins,  the  founders  of  Astro- 
physics; Miss  A.  M.  Clarke,  the  historian  of  astronomy;  and  Mr. 
A.  C.  Ranyard.  a  well  known  astronomer,  who  had  a  private  obser- 
vatory. In  traveling  to  England  via  Rotterdam  and  returning 
via  Antwerp,  Mr.  See  was  enabled  to  enjoy  a  bird's-eye  view  of 
Holland  and  Belgium. 

Mr.  See  had  now  remained  in  Germany  so  long  that  he  was 
anxious  toxeturn  to  America  as  quickly  as  possible  after  his  exam- 
ination. »  His  Inaugural  Dissertation,  was  printed  in  advance  of 
the  examination,  except  the  title  page,  and  on  December  10,  1892, 
he  was  granted  the  degrees  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and  Master 
of  Arts,  with  high  honors.  His  thesis  at  once  made  a  great  rep- 
utation, and  was  much  discussed  all  over  Europe. .  At  the  public 
disputation  in  the  aula  of  the  university,  when  the  degree  was 
conferred,  it  was  remarked  by  several  of  Dr.  See's  professors  in 
attendance,  that  it  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ceremonies  that 
they  had  ever  seen,  and  that  Dr.  See  spoke  German  almost  as 
fluently  and  accurately  as  a  native,  which  is  seldom  true  of  the 
foreign  students  taking  degrees  in  Germany.  It  is  now  twenty 
years  since  Dr.  See  left  Berlin,  but  it  is  well  known  that  he  still 
speaks  German  fluently,  and  often  delights  his  German  friends  by 
conversing  with  them  in  their  own  language. 


CHAPTER  V. 
1893-1896. 

FOUR  YEARS  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO. 

ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  ASTRONOMY  —  STARTING 
OF  THE  YERKES  OBSERVATORY,  AND  PUBLICATION  OF  THE  FIRST 
VOLUME  OF  RESEARCHES  ON  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  STELLAR 
SYSTEMS. 


MMEDIATELY  after  graduating  at  the  University  of 
Berlin,  December  10,  1892,  Dr.  See  sailed  from  Bremen  for 
New  York,]  December  13,  on  the  North  German  Lloyd  steam- 
ship Saale.  He  landed  at  New  York  Christmas  day,  the  passage 
having  been  slow  and  so  stormy  that  the  ship  was  four  days  late, 
and  general  alarm  felt  for  her  safety,  when  at  last  she  was  sighted 
covered  with  snow  and  ice.  The  New  York  newspapers  of 
Christmas  morning  had  scare  headlines:  "Where  is  the  Saale?" 
This  was  of  course  before  the  days  of  wireless  telegraphy,  and  at 
that  time  a  ship  had  to  be  observed  before  its  arrival  or  where- 
abouts could  be  ascertained. 

fWhile  traveling  in  Egypt,  Mr.  See  had  met  at  the  Hotel  de 
Nile,  in  Cairo,  March  6,  1891.  Professor  Eri  B.  Hulbert  of  the  old 
University  of  Chicago.  The  meeting  was  quite  accidental,! but 
Dr.  Hulbert  liked  Mr.  See  so  well,  after  traveling  with  him  about 
Cairo,  that  he  entrusted  to  him  some  pictures  of  their  party  taken 
on  camels  at  the  Pyramids;  and  said  that  after  his  journey  to  the 
Holy  Land,  he  would  visit  Berlin  and  claim  the  pictures.  (  At  that 
time  Mr.  See  only  knew  Mr.  Hulbert  was  from  Chicago,  but  had 
no  inkling  that  he  was  connected  with  the  University.  What 
was  Mr.  See's  surprise,  when  his  traveling  friend  reappeared  in 
Berlin,  claimed  his  pictures,  and  then  told  him  that  he  (Hulbert) 
was  a  professor  at  the  University  of  Chicago,  a  colleague  of  Dr. 


54  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

I 

Harper,  the  president  of  the  new  university,  and  wanted  See  to 
join  the  faculty  at  Chicago  when  he  finished  his  studies  in  Berlin?  ; 
Dr.  Hulbert  then  said  that  he  had  written  to  Dr.  Harper  about 
Mr.  See,  and  that  he  (Harper)  would  be  in  Berlin  that  winter 
(1891-2) .  At  that  time  little  was  thought  of  the  matter,  but  later 
sure  enough  Dr.  Harper^came  to  Berlin,  as  Dr.  Hulbert  had  said 
he  would;  and  of  courselMr.  See  met  Dr.  Harper  at  the  home  of 
Rev.  Dr.  J.  H.  W.  Stuckenberg,  the  pastor  of  the  American  church 
in  Berlin,  who  kept  open  house  once  a  week,  for  the  American 
colony.  It  was  generally  known  that  Dr.  Harper  was  buying 
books  and  libraries  and  selecting  professors  for  the  new  university; 
and  he  had  therefore  consulted  with  Dr.  Stuckenberg  and  others, 
but  Mr.  See  made  no  application  for  any  position  at  Chicago,  nor 
had  he  talked  with  Dr.  Harper  about  the  plans  the  latter  was 
developing. 

It  turned  out,  however,  that  Dr.  Stuckenberg  had  recom- 
mended Mr.  See,  just  as  Dr.  Hulbert  had  done,  and  therefore  when 
Mr.  See  was  at  length  in  sight  of  his  doctor's  degree,  and  he  wrote 
President  Harper  at  Chicago  that  he  would  be  seeking  a  position 
later  for  1893,  the  president  immediately  replied,  wishing  Mr.  See 
to  join  the  faculty  at  Chicago,  and  aid  him  in  securing  an  observa- 
tory to  cost  from  $200,000  to  $300,000.  This  was  in  July,  1892, 
before  anything  had  been  done  about  the  Yerkes  observatory. 
Things  moved  rapidly  at  Chicago,  however,  and  before  the  negoti- 
ations with  Mr.  See  were  concluded,  Mr.  George  E.  Hale,  who  had 
a  private  observatory  in  Chicago,  was  brought  into  relationship 
to  the  University;  and  Mr.  Hale  and  Dr.  Harper  together  pre- 
vailed on  Mr.  Yerkes  to  buy  the  40-inch  glass  discs,  then  lying 
unground  in  the  shops  of  Alvan  Clark  &  Sons,  Cambridgeport, 
Mass.,  for  the  lenses  of  what  has  since  become  the  great  telescope 
of  the  Yerkes  Observatory.  It  seems  that  Mr.  Hale  had  written 
Mr.  Yerkes  a  letter  asking  if  he  would  consider  buying  the  discs; 
and  when  he  replied  in  the  affirmative,  Dr.  Harper  and  Mr.  Hale 
secured  his  promise  of  the  required  funds,  about  October  1,  1892. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  Yerkes  Observatory. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  55 

When  Dr.  See  reached  Chicago  the  day  after  Christmas,  1892, 
many  of  the  departments  of  the  University,  which  had  opened 
October  1,  were  just  being  organized,  some  of  the  classes  meeting 
in  sheds,  stores,  and  other  temporary  buildings.  His  first  busi- 
ness was  to  organize  the  department  of  astronomy.  As  he  was 
familiar  with  the  work  in  astronomy  at  the  great  universities  of 
Berlin  and  Cambridge,  he  naturally  tried  to  plan  similar  work  at 
Chicago,  though  its  full  development  could  only  come  gradually. 
His  first  classes  in  the  calculation  of  orbits  of  comets  had  about 
eight  graduate  students,  which  was  very  satisfactory,  considering  the 
attendance  of  only  about  two  hundred  students  at  the  University. 

Up  to  July  1,  1893,  the  fees  from  students  allowed  Dr.  See, 
as  Docent,  were  only  about  $150.00;  and  it  was  therefore  arranged 
to  advance  his  position  to  assistant,  which  would  pay  $800.00  per 
annum,  and  be  self-supporting  for  a  young  man.  The  work  of 
the  department  was  rapidly  developed  and  it  was  not  long  till  it 
was  recognized  everywhere  as  one  of  the  best  in  the  country. 

Meanwhile  the  mounting  of  the  large  telescope  was  finished 
by  Warner  &  Swasey  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  exhibited  at  the 
World's  Fair,  about  two  miles  from  the  University.  The  grinding 
of  the  glass  discs,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  much  slower  process 
than  making  the  mounting,  yet  this  optical  work  was  making  some 
progress.  During  the  winter  of  1893-4  Mr.  Hale  was  abroad  for 
study  and  some  solar  observations  on  Mt.  Aetna.  Everything 
seemed  to  hang  fire  about  the  observatory,  and  no  progress  seemed 
to  be  in  sight,  beyond  what  had  been  done  by  Warner  &  Swasey, 
and  the  grinding  of  lenses  by  Alvan  Clark  &  Sons. 

It  should  be  said  in  this  connection  that  Professor  S.  W.  Burn- 
ham,  long  famed  as  the  greatest  double  star  observer  in  the  world, 
had  quit  Lick  Observatory  in  California,  in  August,  1892,  and 
thus  he  was  in  Chicago  when  Mr.  Yerkes  agreed  to  give  the  funds 
for  the  glass  discs,  October  1,  1892.  He  held  a  very  lucrative,  and 
not  very  onerous  but  very  responsible  position  as  clerk  of  the 
United  States  Court,  and  had  his  offices  in  the  old  post  office  build- 
ing. Burnham  thus  had  no  connection  with  the  University,  but 


56  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

it  was  understood  that  he  was  to  have  such  connection  as  soon  as 
the  Observatory  was  built.  Naturally  in  his  private  situation  he 
could  do  nothing  to  promote  the  progress  of  the  Observatory.  In 
the  summer  of  1894  Professor  Hale  returned  from  Europe,  and 
took  steps  to  establish  the  Astrophysical  Journal,  and  yet  there 
was  not  the  least  sign  of  any  progress  about  the  Observatory. 
The  site  had  not  been  selected,  no  buildings  had  been  started,  and 
it  looked  as  though  it  might  be  years  before  anything  was  done. 

Now  it  happened  that  the  promised  advancement  of  Dr.  See 
and  Dr.  Laves  at  the  University  was  predicated  on  the  building  of 
the  Yerkes  Observatory;  and  as  this  was  hung  up,  there  was  a 
dubious  prospect  ahead  for  all  concerned  —  Burnham,  Hale,  See, 
and  Laves,  as  well  as  those  whom  it  was  hoped  to  have  associated 
with  the  Observatory  later,  of  whom  Professor  Barnard  was  the 
most  famous. 

In  this  state  of  general  paralysis,  about  October  1,  1894,  Dr. 
See  called  to  interview  President  Harper  as  to  the  cause  for  the 
apparently  indefinite  delay  in  the  building  of  the  Observatory. 
He  was  told  that  the  running  of  the  Observatory  was  estimated 
to  cost  $30,000  per  annum,  and  there  was  no  avaiable  source 
of  income  adequate  to  meet  this  demand,  nor  likely  to  be  any 
during  the  rest  of  the  present  (19th)  century  —  thus  there  was 
nothing  in  view  but  waiting  for  six  years  at  least.  "  I  like  to  get 
gifts  for  the  University,  but  I  am  worried  to  death  to  find  funds 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  Observatory  after  it  is  built!"  patheti- 
cally cried  President  Harper.  Dr.  See  assured  him  that  he  could 
show  him  how  to  start  the  Observatory  on  the  available  income 
of  the  University;  and,  at  the  president's  request,  submitted  a 
plan,  a  few  days  later,  which  accomplished  this  object,  so  that  the 
building  began  immediately. 

Dr.  See's  plan  consisted  in  cutting  down  the  inflated  budget, 
on  the  principle  that  necessities  come  before  luxuries,  and  a  child 
must  crawl  before  it  can  walk.  So  also  if  an  Observatory  can  get 
started,  and  make  a  record  for  efficiency,  it  too  should  grow  and 
prosper;  while  by  planning  for  the  impossible  it  might  be  delayed 


gl 

2 


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o   '^ 


Bl 

>H  g 

B-i 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  57 

for  many  years,  or  never  get  started  at  all.  Mr.  Yerkes  died  in 
1905,  and  if  it  had  not  been  built  during  his  life- time,  the  whole 
matter  probably  would  have  fallen  through  and  come  to  nothing. 
Accordingly  whatever  the  Yerkes  Observatory  has  accomplished 
must  be  ascribed  largely  to  the  timely  help  of  Dr.  See. 

As  the  outcome  of  this  forward  movement  Burnham  at  once 
became  officially  connected  with  the  University  as  professor  of 
practical  astronomy,  while  still  holding  his  office  in  the  court. 
Barnard  was  called  to  Chicago  from  Lick  Observatory  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  the  site  selected  and  work  rushed  forward  at  such  a 
rate  that  the  Observatory  was  opened  for  observations  and  for- 
mally dedicated  in  September,  1897,  with  an  address  by  Professor 
Simon  Newcomb  of  Washington. 

The  importance  of  this  founding  and  opening  of  the  Yerkes 
Observatory  for  American  science  has  been  considerable;  for  it 
has  now  had  sixteen  years  of  creditable  activity,  and  that  many 
years  of  the  life  of  Burnham  and  Barnard  have  been  usefully  em- 
ployed, whereas  they  were  likely  to  be  largely  wasted,  under  the 
unfortunate  conditions  existing  prior  to  1894  both  at  Lick  and 
at  Chicago.  Moreover  enlarged  opportunities  have  been  opened 
for  Frost,  Ritchey  and  others.  Dr.  See  also  was  rewarded  for 
his  untiring  efforts,  but  not  at  Chicago. 

It  is  well  known  that  President  Harper  greatly  appreciated 
the  services  of  Dr.  See  at  the  University,  yet  he  ungratefully  let 
him  leave,  probably  hoping  thereby  to  placate  the  jealously  of 
Professor  Hale,  who  is  said  to  have  blamed  Dr.  See  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  inflated  budget,  which  alone  made  possible  the  building 
of  the  Yerkes  Observatory.  It  might  be  unfortunate  that  the 
University  could  not  better  provide  for  the  support  of  the  Observ- 
atory; yet  it  was  obviously  better  to  have  a  half  loaf  than  no 
bread,  since  with  half  a  loaf  it  was  possible  to  live  and  struggle 
for  more,  whereas  without  it  even  the  struggle  could  not  be  kept 
up. 

We  must  now  dwell  on  Professor  See's  scientific  work  at  the 
University  of  Chicago.    It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  from 


58  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

the  first  he  had  a  goodly  number  of  students,  including  some  of 
very  great  promise,  such  as  the  late  Mr.  George  K.  Lawton,  Pro- 
fessor F.  R.  Moulton,  and  Professor  Eric  Doolittle,  and  thirty  or 
forty  others  now  holding  responsible  positions  in  various  colleges, 
universities  and  observatories.  Dr.  See's  work  and  department 
stood  high  at  the  University,  but  he  felt  that  he  labored  at  a  great 
disadvantage  because  of  his  rank  being  only  that  of  instructor, 
whereas  many  members  of  the  faculty  of  nothing  like  his  quali- 
fications and  experience  were  given  the  rank  of  assistant  professor, 
associate  professor,  or  even  professor. 

Accordingly  when  Professor  Percival  Lowell,  early  in  1896, 
offered  him  an  opportunity  to  make  a  survey  of  the  Southern 
Heavens  for  the  discovery  and  measurement  of  double  stars,  Dr. 
See  accepted  it.  President  Harper  then  offered  him  leave  of 
absence,  with  the  rank  of  assistant  professor,  but  Dr.  See  insisted 
that  for  obvious  reasons  it  should  be  associate  professor,  the  same 
as  that  held  by  Professor  Hale.  When  President  Harper  could 
not  see  his  way  to  grant  that,  Dr.  See  declined  the  assistant 
professorship  and  merely  went  away,  on  leave,  yet  not  expecting 
to  return,  because  it  was  evident  that  at  the  University  of  Chicago 
nothing  was  being  done  on  merit. 

Soon  after  coming  to  Chicago  in  December,  1892,  Dr.  See  had 
come  to  be  closely  associated  with  Professor  S.  W.  Burnham,  the 
greatest  known  authority  on  double  stars.  See  would  frequently 
visit  Burnham  each  week,  and  sometimes  every  few  days,  to  get  a 
list  of  observations,  for  the  calculation  of  the  orbits  of  particular 
double  stars;  for  it  was  found  in  1893  that  all  the  published  orbits 
required  revision,  on  the  basis  of  recent  observations,  and  by  the 
shorter  and  simpler  methods  which  had  been  worked  out  by  Burn- 
ham  and  See.  This  work  finally  included  the  revision  of  the  orbits 
of  forty  double  stars,  and  occupied  Dr.  See  about  three  years, 
from  the  summer  of  1893  to  1896. 

It  was  also  made  to  embrace  a  critical  mathematical  investi- 
gation into  the  action  of  central  forces,  with  a  new  spectroscopic 
method  for  testing  the  law  of  Newtonian  gravitation  among  the 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  59 

stellar  systems.  This  latter  work  was  published  in  July,  1895, 
and  attracted  universal  attention,  because  it  had  been  held  by 
such  authorities  as  Professor  Asaph  Hall  of  the  Naval  Observatory, 
at  Washington,  (cf.  article  in  the  Astronomical  Journal,  Vol.  VIII) 
that  it  would  never  be  possible  to  really  test  or  prove  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Newtonian  law  among  the  double  stars,  but  that  we 
could  merely  make  it  more  and  more  probable,  by  adding  to  the 
number  of  orbits  investigated. 

Dr.  See  had  been  occupied  with  this  question  at  Berlin  in 
1890,  and  had  then  prepared  a  small  paper  on  the  subject,  and  now 
he  gave  it  the  final  form,  showing  that  a  real  test  is  actually  possi- 
ble, with  the  highest  degree  of  rigor  attainable  in  the  observations 
of  the  fixed  stars,  by  means  of  the  combination  of  the  micrometer 
and  spectrograph.  The  latter  instrument  is  a  photographic 
spectroscope  for  determining  the  motion  in  the  line  of  sight,  by 
the  method  of  slight  displacement  of  the  spectral  lines,  developed 
by  Huggins  in  1868.  Dr.  See  thus  completed  the  methods  for 
testing  the  validity  of  the  Newtonian  law  of  attraction  throughout 
the  sidereal  universe,  and  they  have  since  been  used  by  Professors 
Campbell  and  Wright  of  Lick  Observatory,  on  Alpha  Centauri, 
Sirius,  and  other  double  stars. 

During  the  month  of  April,  1895,  Dr.  See  was  making  obser- 
vations at  the  Leander  McCormick  Observatory  of  the  University 
of  Virginia,  and  in  August  at  the  Washburn  Observatory  of  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  to  secure  the  latest  positions  of  the  com- 
panions of  certain  double  stars.  With  the  assistance  of  his  post- 
graduate students  Lawton,  Moulton  and  Doolittle  he  was  rapidly 
completing  the  forty  orbits,  which  were  to  be  made  the  basis  of 
the  first  volume  of  the  famous  Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the 
Stellar  Systems.  President  Harper  had  agreed  to  have  this  work 
published  by  the  University  when  finished. 

Finally,  in  the  spring  of  1896,  all  was  ready  for  the  press,  but 
the  excuse  was  made  that  no  funds  were  available,  for  the  Uni- 
versity to  do  its  part  with;  and  so  Dr.  See  had  to  publish  it  at  his 
own  expense.  About  the  time  Dr.  See  was  disheartened  by  this 


60  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

breach  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  University,  after  all  his  labor  in 
doing  the  work,  he  received  a  telegram  from  Professor  Percival 
Lowell  to  undertake  the  survey  of  the  double  stars  of  the  Southern 
Hemisphere  with  the  24-inch  telescope  at  Flagstaff,  Arizona,  and 
at  the  City  of  Mexico.  The  first  volume  of  Dr.  See's  Researches 
appeared  in  January,  1897,  while  he  was  at  the  City  of  Mexico, 
surveying  the  brilliant  region  of  the  ship  Argus,  Centaurus,  and 
the  Southern  Cross,  in  which  many  important  new  double  stars 
were  discovered. 

As  this  volume  of  Researches  was  essentially  finished  at 
Chicago,  and  only  the  proof  read  at  his  home  in  Montgomery  City, 
and  later  at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  we  may  state  here  that  the 
volume  was  everywhere  recognized  as  setting  a  new  standard  in 
double  star  astronomy.  The  enthusiasm  over  the  work  was 
general  throughout  the  scientific  world.  Thus  Lord  Kelvin  wrote 
Dr.  See  as  follows: 

The  University,  Glasgow,  March  20th,  1897. 
Dear  Dr.  See:— 

I  thank  you  very  much  for  your  letter  of  January 
7,  and  the  accompanying  copy  of  your  new  work  "On  the  Evolu- 
tion of  the  Stellar  Systems,"  which  you  have  kindly  sent  me  and 
which  I  duly  received.  It  is  a  splendid  book  and  full  of  matter 
most  interesting  to  me. 

Double  star  astronomy  has  always  been  exceedingly  interest- 
ing in  giving  us  some  fundamental  information  of  systems  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  Universe  analogous  to  our  Solar  System  in 
respect  to  orbital  motion  under  gravitational  force  but  different 
from  ours  in  that  grand  detail  of  two  suns  instead  of  one.  And 
the  interest  is  now  greatly  enhanced  by  the  revelations  of  physical 
properties  and  of  velocities  relatively  to  our  system  which  spectrum 
analyses  have  given  us  within  the  last  thirty-three  years. 

I  enclose  an  extract  from  a  letter  which  I  received  from  Tis- 
serand  only  a  few  months  before  his  death,  by  which  you  will  judge 
how  eagerly  I  looked  to  your  Chapter  3,  §  4,  and  how  interested  I  was 


LORD  KELVIN,  (1824-1907) 

From  a  photograph  by  Falk,  New  York,  1902.     The  most  eminent  British  Natural 

Philosopher  of  the  past  century,  and  one  of  the  foremost  of  all  time.     He  was  one  of 

the  first  British  authorities  to  adopt  See's  discoveries  on  the  Constitution  of  the  Sun 

and  on  the  Cause  of  Earthquakes  and  Mountain  Formation. 


PROFESSOR  G.  V.  SCHIAPARELLI,  OF  MILAN.  (1835-1910). 

The  most  eminent  Italian  astronomer  since  the  time  of  Galileo,  and  one  of  the  first  to 
adopt  Professor  See's  Theories  in  Cosmogony  and  Geogony.  He  was  so  impressed 
with  the  discovery  of  the  Cause  of  Earthquakes  and  Mountain  Formation,  that, 
although  at  an  advanced  age,  he  addressed  young  Professor  See  as  "  Revered  Colleague.1 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  61 

to  find  in  it  the  italicized  paragraph  on  page  251.  The  physical 
cause  of  the  great  eccentricities  of  the  orbits  of  double  stars  is  cer- 
tainly a  very  important  subject  for  investigation  or  speculation. 

I  hope  the  continuation  of  your  work  may  prosper  and  that 
before  very  long  we  may  have  a  second  volume. 

Believe  me,  with  kind  regards,  yours  truly, 

KELVIN. 

From  Milan  the  illustrious  Italian  astronomer  Schiaparelli 
wrote  that  Dr.  See's  Researches  "would  constitute  the  third  great 
epoch  in  double  star  astronomy  since  those  of  W.  Herschel  and  W. 
Struve."  To  understand  this  fully  we  should  recall  that  Sir 
William  Herschel  first  discovered  and  proved  the  existence  of 
double  stars  by  the  observations  made  with  his  great  telescopes 
from  1780  to  1802;  while  the  celebrated  William  Struve  of  Dorpat, 
Russia,  first  carried  on  a  systematic  campaign  for  measuring  over 
three  thousand  double  stars,  1825-1837,  and  published  the  results 
in  his  famous  Mensurae  Micrometricae,  Petersburg,  1838.  Thus 
Herschel  had  found  out  that  double  stars  exist,  and  proved  that 
some  of  them  are  in  motion;  while  Struve  had  investigated  the 
motions  on  an  extensive  scale,  with  a  view  to  determining  their 
orbits.  These  were  the  two  great  epochs  in  double  star  astronomy, 
and  Schiaparelli  declared  that  the  third  great  epoch  (troisieme 
grande  epoque)  would  be  made  by  Dr.  See's  Researhes  on  the  Evo- 
lution of  the  Stellar  Systems,  by  which  the  origin  of  these  wonderful 
systems  would  be  explained. 

What  Schiaparelli  predicted,  in  1897,  is  now  a  matter  of 
history.  For  it  is  now  universally  recognized  that  Dr.  See's 
Researches  have  marked  the  third  great  epoch  in  double  star  as- 
tronomy, and  that  it  is  fully  as  important  as  the  original  epoch 
made  by  Sir  William  Herschel,  or  the  later  great  epoch  made  by 
the  systematic  observations  of  W.  Struve,  at  Dorpat,  and  subse- 
quently at  Poulkowa.  The  classic  achievements  of  Herschel  and 
Struve  have  been  repeated  in  the  different  and  much  more  difficult 
line  of  Cosmogony  by  America's  famous  astronomer,  T.  J.  J.  See. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

1896-1898. 

TWO  YEARS  AT  THE  LOWELL  OBSERVATORY,  FLAGSTAFF,  ARIZONA, 
AND  AT  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

SURVEYING  THE  DOUBLE  STARS  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  CELESTIAL 
HEMISPHERE.  —  LECTURES  ON  SIDEREAL  ASTRONOMY  AT 
LOWELL  INSTITUTE,  BOSTON,  1899. 

'P  to  the  time  Dr.  See  joined  the  Lowell  Observatory  he  was 
known  chiefly  as  a  mathematician  and  calculator  of  orbits 
of  double  stars.  As  astronomers  are  in  many  cases,  un- 
fortunately, either  mere  observers  with  the  telescope,  and  almost 
without  knowledge  of  the  mathematical  branches  of  the  science, 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  mere  mathematicians  and  equally  devoid 
of  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  heavens  as  derived  from  the  use 
of  the  telescope,  Dr.  See  became  impressed  with  the  view  that 
to  obtain  a  really  deep  knowledge  of  the  universe  as  it  is,  one 
must  be  both  a  mathematician  and  a  telescopic  explorer  of  the 
heavens. 

Accordingly  after  careful  consideration  he  deemed  it  ad- 
visable to  accept  Professor  Lowell's  generous  offer  of  an  oppor- 
tunity to  survey  the  Southern  Heavens.  Some  of  the  mathema- 
ticians, such  as  Dr.  G.  W.  Hill,  of  New  York,  probably  thought 
that  Dr.  See  was  making  a  mistake  to  give  up  his  mathematical 
researches,  even  temporarily,  to  do  telescopic  work;  but  Dr.  See 
had  before  him  the  example  of  the  two  Herschels,  and  wisely  de- 
cided that  intimate  knowledge  of  the  heavens  was  as  necessary 
now  as  it  was  a  century  ago.  He  rightly  believed  that  it  is  the 
one-sidedness  of  most  modern  investigators  that  prevents  them 
from  obtaining  the  breadth  of  view  required  for  the  greatest  ad- 
vances in  science.  Since  Professor  See's  revolutionary  work  in 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  63 

establishing  a  New  Science  of  Cosmogony  (1910),  itis  certain  that 
his  intuition  of  1896  was  right;  for  no  one  but  an  astronomer  of 
the  widest  experience  could  have  sustained  this  comprehensive 
creative  effort,  which  marks  one  of  the  greatest  epochs  in  the 
history  of  astronomy. 

Before  joining  Professor  Lowell  at  Flagstaff,  Arizona,  about 
August  1,  1896,  Dr.  See  spent  some  J:hree  months,  May  to  July, 
at  his  home  near  Montgomery  City.  Prior  to  leaving  Chicago  he 
had  planned  for  the  work  of  the  department  of  astronomy,  during 
his  absence,  and  had  the  work  of  instruction  divided  between  Dr. 
Laves  and  Mr.  Moulton.  Mr.  Moulton  was  considered  by  Dr. 
See  one  of  his  ablest  students,  and  President  Harper  had  appointed 
him  (Moulton)  upon  Dr.  See's  sole  recommendation,  without  even 
seeing  the  young  man  —  so  great  was  the  President's  confidence 
in  any  recommendation  submitted  by  Dr.  See. 

While  visiting  his  Mother  at  Montgomery  City,  in  June,  1896, 
Dr.  See  suffered  a  mild  attack  of  typhoid  fever.  It  lasted  some 
twenty  days,  and  left  him  weak,  and  somewhat  emaciated,  though 
not  extremely  so.  Accordingly  when  he  first  joined  the  Lowell 
Observatory  he  had  not  yet  fully  recovered,  and  had  to  begin 
heavy  work  by  easy  stages. 

Professor  Lowell  was  accompanied  to  Arizona  by  two  assist- 
ants, Mr.  A.  E.  Douglass,  and  Mr.  D.  A.  Drew;  Alvan  G.  Clark, 
the  telescope  maker;  a  secretary,  Miss  W.  L.  Leonard;  and  Dr. 
See  and  his  assistant,  Mr.  W.  A.  Cogshall,  who  were  occupied  with 
the  double  star  work.  Mr.  Clark  went  along  chiefly  to  see  that 
all  was  right  with  the  lens  as  finally  fitted  in  its  cell.  The  party 
reached  Flagstaff,  over  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Rail- 
road, during  the  last  week  in  July, —  Dr.  See  and  Mr.  Cogshall 
coming  two  days  later  than  the  rest,  owing  to  arrangements  for 
the  shipping  of  books  which  he  had  to  be  made  in  Chicago,  where 
the  party  first  assembled. 

The  town  of  Flagstaff  is  in  a  desert,  on  the  high  plateau  of 
Northern  Arizona,  about  7,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  observ- 
atory is  on  Mars'  Hill  about  a  mile  west  of  the  town.  The  astron- 


64  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

omers  had  to  live  at  some  of  the  hotels*,  and  climb  the  hill  of 
some  four  hundred  feet  elevation  in  going  to  their  observations. 
The  observatory  is  surrounded  by  a  magnificient  pine  forest  and 
the  location  is  beautiful,  except  for  the  dryness,  which,  however, 
is  necessary  for  the  best  conditions  in  the  investigations  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  All  astronomical  observations  have  to  be  made 
through  the  terrestrial  atmosphere,  and  in  order  to  secure  steady 
seeing  the  observatory  ought  to  be  in  a  dry  climate,  and  also  on 
a  high  plateau,  which  is  above  the  densest  part  of  the  atmosphere. 
Such  was  the  site  selected  by  Professor  Lowell  for  his  Observatory 
in  Arizona,  at  which  so  much  famous  work  has  been  done. 

The  citizens  of  Flagstaff  were  very  appreciative  of  the  Lowell 
Observatory,  in  fact  it  was  the  pride  of  the  whole  territory.  People 
came  from  all  over  the  southwest  to  visit  the  observatory,  as  well 
as  from  Chicago,  New  York  and  Boston,  and  even  from  Europe. 

Professor  Lowell  had  great  enthusiasm  for  his  favorite  study 
of  the  planet  Mars.  Thousands  upon  thousands  of  drawings  and 
sketches  were  made  and  afterwards  digested  and  discussed  in  the 
Annals  of  the  Lowell  Observatory,  as  well  as  in  more  popular  books. 
In  this  way  Professor  Lowell  not  only  made  his  observations,  but 
got  them  before  the  world  in  an  impressive  form.  Accordingly 
ever  since  1894  Lowell  has  been  generally  recognized  as  the  highest 
authority  on  the  observations  of  the  surfaces  of  the  planets. 

Dr.  See's  work  consisted  in  sweeping  the  southern  heavens 
for  the  discovery  of  new  double  stars.  His  zone  of  work  began  at 
about  fifteen  and  extended  to  about  sixty-five  degrees  south  decli- 
nation. Accordingly  it  included  over  half  the  southern  celestial 
hemisphere,  but  of  course  a  period  of  two  years  was  not  enough 
time  in  which  to  make  the  survey  exhaustive.  The  southern  most 
part  of  the  work  could  only  be  done  at  the  City  of  Mexico.  The 

*  While  living  at  the  Grand  Canon  Hotel  Dr.  See  had  the  serious  misfortune 
to  lose  his  library,  valuable  correspondence  and  many  personal  effects  by  fire, 
September  14,  1897.  He  had  to  flee  from  the  burning  building  at  three  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  carrying  the  unpublished  records  of  the  Lowell  Observatory  under 
one  arm,  and  Bowditch's  Translation  of  Laplace's  M^canique  Celeste  under  the 
other — the  latter  being  deemed  priceless  among  the  valuable  books  of  the  library. 


THE   24-INCH   TELESCOPE  OF  THE   LOWELL  OBSERVATORY,   AS  MOUNTED   IN 
THE  DOME  AT  FLAGSTAFF,  ARIZONA,  1896. 

The  telescope  is  here  shown  east  of  the  pier,  but  in  the  Double  Star  work  of  Dr.  See  usually 
was  reversed,  so  as  to  be  on  the  other  side. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  65 

observatory  was  in  Mexico  city,  however,  only  during  the  winter 
months  of  1896-7;  the  observations  at  that  southernmost  point 
being  all  included  within  the  months  of  January,  February  and 
March,  1897.  And  hence  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  double 
star  work  was  done  at  Flagstaff.  Yet  while  at  Mexico,  the  ex- 
tremely favorable  location,  within  nineteen  degrees  of  the  equator, 
enabled  Dr.  See  to  reach  all  the  stars  of  the  Southern  hemisphere 
except  those  in  the  small  cap  within  twenty-five  degrees  of  the 
South  Pole;  and  it  is  needless  to  say  that  every  moment  of  the 
time  available  during  the  three  months  was  utilized  to  the  utmost. 

At  Flagstaff  the  double-star  work  often  would  begin  at  sun- 
set, and  extend  till  about  eleven  o'clock,  when  the  Mars  work 
would  have  preference;  and  then,  when  several  hours  had  been 
devoted  to  Mars,  the  double-star  work  might  be  resumed  again 
towards  daylight.  This  breaking  of  the  double-star  work  into 
two  parts  made  it  hard  on  Dr.  See  and  Mr.  Cogshall,  but  it  was 
not  felt  so  severely  except  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  nearly  every 
night  was  clear,  and  no  time  could  be  lost,  owing  to  the  shortness 
of  the  stay  in  that  southern  location.  Accordingly,  at  Mexico 
double  stars  had  to  be  taken  both  morning  and  evening,  of  every 
available  night,  and  the  observers  always  went  home  just  as  the 
Southern  Cross  was  fading  away  on  the  southern  horizon,  where 
it  shone  with  great  beauty  over  the  mountains  lying  in  that  di- 
rection. 

The  usual  practice  in  the  sweeping  was  for  Mr.  Cogshall  to 
look  through  the  finder  and  bring  the  stars  into  the  field  of  the 
large  telescope,  while  Dr.  See  examined  them  with  various  magni- 
fying powers,  according  to  circumstances.  It  did  not  take  long 
practice  before  Dr.  See  could  tell  almost  at  a  glance  whether  a 
star  had  a  companion  or  not,  but  in  some  cases  he  had  to  wait  for 
the  image  of  the  star  to  get  quiet,  or  put  on  higher  power,  before  he 
could  make  out  the  existence  of  a  companion  with  entire  clearness 
and  certainty.  Then  it  was  necessary  to  revolve  the  micrometer 
and  measure  the  position  angle  and  distance  at  which  the  com- 
panion was  seen.  While  Dr.  See  was  making  the  measures,  Mr. 


66  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Cogshall  sketched  the  stars  in  the  field  of  the  finder  and  recorded 
the  micrometer  measures  in  a  book  kept  at  hand  for  the  purpose. 

As  a  rule  the  dome  of  the  observatory  was  turned  so  as  to 
leave  the  opening  pointed  a  little  to  the  west  of  south,  and  the 
stars  were  therefore  observed  just  after  they  had  passed  over  the 
meridian.  This  was  found  to  be  the  most  favorable  position  for 
work,  and  by  taking  the  stars  as  they  went  by  it  saved  constantly 
moving  the  dome,  which  would  have  consumed  much  time  and 
proved  to  be  very  troublesome.  By  working  for  five  or  six  hours, 
Dr.  See  and  Mr.  Cogshall  used  often  to  examine  at  least  a  thou- 
sand of  the  larger  stars  in  the  region  swept  over.  This  usually 
included  a  belt  of  the  sky  about  a  degree  wide,  or  twice  the  diam- 
eter of  the  Moon,  and  extending  one-fourth  of  the  way  around 
the  heavens.  Such  sweeps  did  not  always  include  every  bright 
star  in  the  region  traversed,  for  in  measuring  the  stars  found  to 
have  companions,  some  would  pass  by  and  have  to  be  left  for 
another  occasion. 

At  Mexico  City  the  time  was  so  precious  that  the  telescope 
was  pointed  first  on  the  naked  eye  stars,  so  conspicuously  bright 
in  that  region,  and  then  on  those  which  were  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye.  Among  the  important  stellar  systems  thus  discovered  at 
Mexico  City  may  be  mentioned  Eta  Centauri,  Alpha  Phoenicis, 
p  Velorum,  d  Centauri,  and  many  others.  Some  are  pairs  of 
nearly  equal  stars,  lying  almost  in  contact,  under  the  highest 
telescopic  power;  others  are  composed  of  a  faint  companion  close 
to  a  bright  star;  while  still  others  have  excessively  faint  com- 
panions far  away,  and  just  barely  visible  to  the  keenest  eye  in  the 
best  seeing.  About  a  dozen  of  these  objects  looked  like  planets 
shining  by  reflected  light.  Their  color  usually  was  almost  black. 
The  double  stars  thus  present  an  amazing  variety  of  phenomena 
and  some  are  very  highly  colored.  The  tints  usually  are  com- 
binations of  yellow  or  reddish  light  for  the  larger  stars  with  bluish 
or  purple  companions. 

When  Dr.  See  entered  upon  this  survey  of  the  southern  double 
stars  but  little  work  of  importance  had  been  done  there  since  the 


SWEEPING  FOR  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  NEW  DOUBLE  STARS,  AT  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 
In  this  view  Dr.  See  is  at  the  finder  and  Mr.  Cogshall  at  the  large  telescope.     Dr.  See  frequently 
changed  place  with  his  associate,  in  order  that  the  latter  might  have  a  chance  to  share  in 
the  work  of  discovery. 


THE  DOME  OF  THE  LOWELL  OBSERVATORY  AT  TACUBAYA,  MEXICO. 

In  this  view  the  Dome  is  turned  to  the  east 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.   J.   SEE  67 

memorable  survey  carried  out  by  Sir  John  Herschel  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  half  a  century  before  (1834-1838) .  But  it  happened 
that  while  Dr.  See  was  working  at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  Mr. 
R.  T.  A.  Innes  was  working  also  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  Sometimes  Dr.  See  would  announce  his  dis- 
coveries to  Mr.  Innes,  after  they  were  already  independently  noted 
at  the  Cape;  and,  vice  versa,  Mr.  Innes  would  send  notice  of  dis- 
coveries at  the  Cape  which  Dr.  See  already  had  secured  sometime 
earlier  at  Lowell  Observatory.  It  is  agreeable  to  note  that  this 
rivalry  always  was  of  the  most  generous  nature,  each  freely  con- 
ceding to  the  other  whatever  belonged  to  him. 

The  survey  of  Dr.  See  extended  over  only  two  years,  the  ten- 
tative plans  for  extending  it  further  south,  by  locating  the  obser- 
vatory in  Peru,  having  to  be  given  up,  because  of  a  nervous  break- 
down unexpectedly  experienced  by  Professor  Lowell.  This  illness 
lasted  over  some  two  years,  and  meanwhile  Dr.  See  had  become  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  in  the  United  States  Navy,  and  was  in  charge 
of  the  26-inch  telescope  of  the  Naval  Observatory  at  Washington. 

Although  not  completed,  owing  to  Lowell's  unexpected  ill- 
ness, the  effect  of  Dr.  See's  double-star  survey  throughout  the 
world  was  considerable.  It  stimulated  effort  in  all  southern  ob- 
servatories, and  even  helped  the  double-star  work  at  Lick  Observa- 
tory, and  at  many  other  places  in  America  as  well  as  at  Greenwich, 
Potsdam,  Poulkowa,  Paris,  Brussels,  and  other  observatories  in 
Europe.  In  his  introduction  to  Mr.  Innes'  "Reference  Catalogue 
of  Southern  Double  Stars,"  published  by  the  Royal  Observatory, 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  1899,  Sir  David  Gill,  H.  M.  Astronomer, 
speaks  of  this  work  of  See  and  Innes  as  follows: 

"Up  to  the  present  time  no  general  catalogue  of  the  double 
stars  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  has  been  published.  The  ob- 
server who  desired  to  work  in  this  field  of  research  has,  therefore, 
been  compelled  either  to  expend  much  time  in  searching  for  suit- 
able objects  in  the  sky,  or  to  consult  and  compare  many  different 
publications,  in  order  to  find  the  objects  most  likely  to  repay  labor, 
with  such  means  as  may  be  at  his  disposal. 


68  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

"Greater  activity  may,  in  future,  be  confidently  looked  for 
in  double-star  work,  owing  to  the  increased  number  of  suitable 
instruments  recently  erected  in  the  Southern  hemisphere.  A 
strong  additional  stimulus  will  undoubtedly  be  given  by  the  ex- 
ample of  Dr.  See's  labors  in  this  comparatively  unexplored  field, 
and  by  the  publication  of  his  Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the 
Stellar  Systems." 

Fourteen  years  after  these  words  are  written  we  find  Sir  David 
Gill's  predictions  fully  verified.  Mr.  Innes  for  some  years  has 
been  doing  a  great  deal  of  double-star  work  at  Johannesburg,  in 
the  Transvaal;  and  Professor  W.  J.  Hussey  of  the  Detroit  Obser- 
vatory, University  of  Michigan,  is  now  in  La  Plata,  extending  his 
double-star  work  over  the  unexplored  regions  near  the  South  Pole. 
It  is  probable  that  within  five  or  ten  years,  several  thousand  more 
new  double  stars  will  be  discovered  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 
As  a  sequel  to  Dr.  See's  survey  at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  this  is 
all  very  interesting,  and  very  encouraging  to  those  who  believe 
in  scientific  progress.  Without  this  work  of  Dr.  See,  as  Sir  David 
Gill  hints,  in  the  above  extract,  little  or  none  of  this  work  of  ex- 
ploration is  likely  to  have  been  undertaken. 

At  the  City  of  Mexico  very  considerable  public  interest  was 
awakened  by  the  location  of  the  Lowell  Observatory  there.  Gen- 
eral Diaz,  the  President  of  Republic,  accompanied  by  Secretary 
of  State  Mariscal,  visited  the  Observatory  in  state,  under  a  mili- 
tary escort,  and  spent  several  hours  viewing  Venus  and  Mercury 
by  daylight.  All  the  scientific  and  literary  men  in  Mexico  showed 
an  equal  interest,  some  coming  by  day  and  some  by  night,  to  view 
the  planets,  and  especially  to  observe  Mars.  This  was  quite 
gratifying  to  Professor  Lowell  and  his  associates;  and  it  had  the 
effect  of  encouraging  Science  in  Mexico,  where  the  Astronomical 
Society  of  Mexico  has  since  been  established,  probably  as  an  out- 
come of  this  expedition. 

The  removal  to  and  from  Mexico  of  all  the  machinery  of  the 
observatory,  and  its  erection  in  suitable  order  was  a  considerable 
mechanical  undertaking.  Professor  Lowell  had  a  good  engineer 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  69 

in  Mr.  Godfrey  Sykes,  of  Flagstaff,  who  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion; but  in  addition  to  his  help,  Dr.  See,  Mr.  Cogshall,  Mr.  Doug- 
lass, and  Mr.  Drew  aided  in  putting  up  and  taking  down  the 
buildings  and  machinery.  It  was  found  that  the  Mexican  peon 
laborers  were  so  wholly  devoid  of  mechanical  sense  that  one  Ameri- 
can Vas  worth  a  dozen  Mexicans  in  these  building  and  dismounting 
operations. 

Before  leaving  Mexico,  several  of  the  astronomers,  including 
Dr.  See,  ascended  the  volcano  Popocatapetl.  The  trip  was  very 
interesting  for  the  view  of  the  country  it  offered;  and  for  the  sight 
of  the  sulphur  refinery,  at  an  altitude  of  some  12,000  feet,  where 
the  party  spent  the  night. 

Professor  Lowell  was  suffering  from  fatigue  and  nervousness 
before  he  left  Mexico  for  Boston.  After  reaching  home  his  ailment 
increased,  and  although  he  started  again  for  Arizona,  and  got  as 
far  as  Chicago,  he  had  to  turn  back  and  take  a  long  rest  and  treat- 
ment before  health  could  be  restored.  Finally,  after  two  or  three 
years  he  was  himself  again,  and  could  conduct  the  observatory 
with  his  old  time  vigor  and  enthusiasm. 

Mr.  W.  A.  Cogshall  who  assisted  Dr.  See  most  of  the  time  in 
his  work  at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  developed  a  good  taste  for 
astronomy,  and  has  since  attained  considerable  prominence  as 
professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of  the  Kirkwood  Observatory, 
of  the  University  of  Indiana.  He  is  an  indefatigable  worker,  and 
loves  to  observe  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  enthusiasm  of  one 
worker,  as  is  well  known,  usually  bears  fruit  in  another;  and  of 
late  years  the  University  of  Indiana  has  produced  several  prom- 
ising young  astronomers. 

After  concluding  his  two  years  at  the  Lowell  Observatory, 
Dr.  See  spent  part  of  the  summer  of  1898  at  his  old  home,  in 
Missouri,  preparing  a  course  of  public  lectures  for  the  Lowell 
Institute.  These  were  on  the  subject  of  Sidereal  Astronomy,  and 
were  given  during  the  months  of  December,  1898,  and  January, 
1899.  They  included  the  most  splendid  illustrations  known,  and 
excited  generous  enthusiasm  among  the  people  of  Boston.  It  was 


70  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

generally  said  that  it  was  the  finest  and  most  impressive  course 
of  lectures  given  at  the  Lowell  Institute  since  the  famous  course 
delivered  by  Professor  Benjamin  Peirce  in  1879. 

This  course  of  lectures  is  important  in  another  way.  It  im- 
pressed Dr.  See  greatly  with  the  hazy  veil  of  cosmical  dust  spread 
over  the  back  ground  of  the  sky  in  Barnard's  magnificient  photo- 
graphs of  the  Milky  Way,  which  had  excited  such  enthusiasm  in 
Boston.  In  these  lectures  and  another  at  Wellesley  College,  Dr. 
See  pointed  out  that  this  dust  might  be  expelled  from  the  stars; 
and  he  thus  anticipated  Arrhenius  and  others  in  publicly  advoca- 
ting the  modern  theory  of  repulsive  forces  in  nature. 

Even  before  Dr.  See  gave  the  Lowell  lectures,  it  was  known 
that  Secretary  Long  and  President  McKinley  were  considering 
his  appointment  to  a  Professorship  of  Mathematics  in  the  Navy, 
with  a  view  of  building  up  the  scientific  force  at  the  Naval  Obser- 
vatory in  Washington.  As  soon  as  his  Lowell  lectures  were  finish- 
ed, and  he  was  returning  to  his  home  by  way  of  Washington,  he 
found  to  his  astonishment  that  he  had  been  appointed  by  the 
President  and  his  name  already  sent  to  the  Senate  for  confirmation. 

While  calling  on  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  nobody  could  have 
been  more  surprised  than  Dr.  See  to  be  told,  in  reply  to  his  remark 
that  he  hoped  to  be  considered  for  a  vacancy  expected  to  occur 
in  May:  "Professor,  I  have  already  made  your  appointment. 
The  President  approved  your  selection  yesterday  and  your  nomi- 
nation has  gone  to  the  Senate.  You  will  of  course  have  to  pass  a 
professional  and  physical  examination,  but  you  will  have  no 
difficulty  about  that."  Such  a  pleasant  surprise  from  Secretary 
Long  encouraged  Professor  See  very  much.  For  it  looked  as  if  a 
proper  estimate  had  been  put  on  his  strenuous  labors  of  the  past 
six  years,  since  he  had  returned  from  Germany. 

Naturally  his  plans  of  going  on  to  Missouri  had  to  be  sud- 
denly altered,  and  instead  he  tarried  in  Washington  to  pass  his 
examinations,  and  be  assigned  duty  at  the  Naval  Observatory; 
after  which  he  obtained  leave  to  arrange  his  business  affairs  in  the 
West. 


w  i 

H 

.*, 

W 


CHAPTER  VII. 
1899-1902 

THREE  AND  A  HALF  YEARS  AT  THE  NAVAL  OBSERVATORY,  WASHINGTON . 

OBSERVING  DOUBLE  STARS  AND  SATELLITES,  AND  MEASURING  THE 
DIAMETERS  OF  THE  PLANETS  BY  DAYLIGHT  TO  ELIMINATE  THE 
EFFECTS  OF  IRRADIATION. 

February  7th,  1899,  Dr.  See  was  formally  nominated*  by 
President  McKinley  to  be  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the 
Navy,  and  the  nomination  confirmed  by  the  Senate  on 
February  10.  After  a  short  absence  at  his  home  in  Missouri,  Pro- 
fessor See  was  regularly  on  duty  at  the  Naval  Observatory  in 
Washington.  At  first  he  was  occupied  with  the  reduction  of  the 
Meridian  observations  and  participating  in  the  observations  of 
the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  with  the  meridian  circle.  This  is  an 
important  branch  of  the  observatory  work,  and  Professor  See 
wished  to  get  into  close  touch  with  it  by  actual  practice,  his  pre- 
vious experience  having  been  mainly  with  equatorial  telescopes 
of  large  size.  But  after  the  retirement  of  Professor  Edgar  Frisbie, 
U.S.N.,  in  May,  1899,  Professor  See  was  given  charge  of  the  12- 
inch  equatorial  telescope  of  the  Naval  Observatory,  till  December, 
when  he  was  given  charge  of  the  great  26-inch  equatorial,  with 
which  he  made  so  many  fine  observations  during  the  next  three 
years. 

The  experience  gained  in  the  meridian  work  during  1899  en- 
abled Professor  See  to  effect  important  improvements  in  the  piers 
of  the  new  6-inch  transit  circle  during  the  year  1901.  This  instru- 
ment had  been  mounted  on  marble  piers,  but  the  grain  of  the 
marble  was  not  symmetrical  in  the  two  piers,  being  tilted  in  one 
and  horizontal  in  the  other;  so  that  with  changes  of  temperature 

*To  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  retirement  of  Professor  Newcomb, 
March  12,  1897. 


72  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

during  the  day  the  azimuth  of  the  instrument  varied  in  a  trouble- 
some manner.  In  the  summer  of  1901  a  navy  board  composed 
of  Professor  See,  Professor  Updegraff,  and  Assistant  Astronomer 
George  A.  Hill,  recommended  the  removal  of  the  marble  piers, 
and  their  replacement  by  piers  of  brick,  with  the  result  that  the 
instrument  afterwards  performed  with  entire  satisfaction,  and 
gave  results  of  unrivaled  accuracy.  This  improvement  of  the 
six-inch  transit  circle  enable  Professor  Updegraff  to  greatly  im- 
prove the  standard  of  the  meridian  work  of  the  Naval  Observatory. 

Professor  See's  observations  with  the  twelve-inch  equatorial 
were  mainly  of  asteroids,  comets  and  double  stars.  Professor 
S.  J.  Brown,  U.S.N.,  was  on  the  point  of  giving  up  the  large  equa- 
torial telescope  to  become  Astronomical  Director  of  the  Naval 
Observatory,  and  naturally  this  powerful  instrument  was  assigned 
to  Professor  See  as  the  most  experienced  astronomer  available 
for  this  duty. 

Early  in  the  month  of  October,  while  the  twenty-six-inch  was 
still  officially  in  charge  of  Professor  Brown,  Professor  See  began 
with  it  a  series  of  observations  of  the  satellite  of  Neptune.  The 
seeing  at  this  season  of  the  year  often  is  very  fine,  because  it  is 
just  before  winter  comes  on,  and  the  air  quiet,  hazy  and  smoky, 
as  in  Indian  summer.  These  favorable  conditions  were  unusually 
conspicuous  in  1899,  and  on  October  10,  while  observing  the 
satellite  of  Neptune,  Professor  See  noticed  indications  of  faint 
belts  on  the  disc  of  the  planet.  They  seemed  to  be  bands  like 
those  on  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  but  very  much  fainter  and  more 
indistinct,  because  the  disc  of  Neptune  always  appears  small  even 
in  the  largest  telescope.  The  belts  on  Neptune  were  observed  on 
several  subsequent  occasions,  and  noted  also  by  Mr.  Dinwiddie, 
who  assisted  Professor  See  in  the  work  on  the  great  equatorial,  so 
that  the  existence  of  the  belts  is  beyond  doubt.  This  beautiful 
discovery  is  a  severe  test  of  the  astronomer's  vision,  telescope, 
and  atmospheric  conditions;  and  it  shows  that  the  planet  Neptune 
is  physically  of  the  same  type  as  Uranus,  on  which  belts  were  dis- 
covered by  the  Henry  brothers  at  Paris  in  1884. 


VIEW   OF    THE    LARGE    TELESCOPE    OF   THE    NAVAL   OBSERVATORY    AT 

WASHINGTON. 

Showing  the  mounting,  and  the  elevating  floor,  by  which  the  observer  is  brought  to 
convenient  height  in  any  position  of  the  instrument. 


PROFESSOR  SEE  OBSERVING  WITH  THE  LARGE  TELESCOPE  OF  THE  NAVAL  OBSERVATORY. 

It  was  with  this  fine  instrument  that  Dr.  See  carried  out  his  delicate  researches  on  the  diameters  of  the 
Planets  and  Satellites  by  daylight  and  also  at  night,  to  eliminate  the  effects  of  Irradiation,  which 
had  never  been  done  before. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.   J.  SEE  73 

During  the  first  year  after  Professor  See  took  charge  of  the 
large  equatorial  he  was  occupied  mainly  with  the  measurement  of 
satellites;  but  later  he  enlarged  the  plan  of  work  so  as  to  include 
in  it  the  determination  of  the  diameters  of  all  the  planets  and 
satellites.  This  was,  of  course,  a  considerable  program,  requiring 
time,  energy  and  rare  mental  and  physical  powers  in  the  observer, 
but  Professor  See  was  able  finally  to  carry  it  to  a  conclusion.  The 
satellite  observations  and  those  on  the  diameters  of  the  planets 
were  made  simultaneously,  without  either  line  of  work  interfering 
with  the  other.  And  the  work  on  the  diameters  of  the  planets 
was  done  both  at  night  and  by  daylight,  to  eliminate  the  trouble- 
some effects  of  the  irradiation. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  of  history  that  as  many  measurements  as 
had  been  made  on  the  diameters  of  the  planets  and  satellites  by 
astronomers  during  the  three  centuries  since  the  invention  of  the 
telescope  by  Galileo,  no  one  had  previously  attempted  to  eliminate 
the  irradiation  systematically,  so  as  to  get  the  true  diameters  of 
the  planets,  till  Professor  See  executed  this  important  investiga- 
tion in  1901  and  1902.  The  result  was  a  series  of  planetary  diam- 
eters which  never  can  be  much  improved  upon.  See's  deter- 
minations have  now  come  to  be  recognized  as  standard,  and  thus 
occupy  a  classic  place  in  the  literature  of  astronomy. 

It  should  be  explained  that  irradiation  makes  all  the  planets 
seem  to  be  larger  than  they  really  are.  It  is  illustrated  by  the 
apparent  enlargement  of  the  outer  rim  of  the  new  moon  and  by 
the  blunting  of  the  points  of  the  crescent,  whereas  they  should 
really  appear  quite  sharp.  This  is  owing  to  the  sensation  of  the 
light  spreading  on  the  retina  of  the  eye;  and  this  enlargement  is 
called  the  irradiation.  There  was  no  previous  method  for  getting 
rid  of  this  disturbing  cause,  and  Professor  See  therefore  devised 
the  scheme  for  taking  observations  by  daylight  and  afterwards  by 
night.  It  was  found  that  the  night  diameters  were  considerably 
larger  than  those  taken  by  daylight;  and  this  difference  gave  the 
constant  of  the  irradiation,  as  found  by  actual  measurement,  with- 
out regard  to  any  theory.  Professor  See's  empirical  method 


74  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

therefore  is  recognized  to  be  safe,  and  sound;  and  this  doubtless 
is  the  reason  why  his  results  have  been  so  generally  accepted  by 
the  scientific  world. 

When  Lord  Kelvin  was  visiting  Washington  in  April,  1902,  a 
public  reception  by  the  leading  men  of  science  in  the  city  was 
tendered  him  at  the  Cosmos  Club.  At  this  reception  he  took  par- 
ticular pains  to  inquire  of  Professor  See  about  the  experiments  for 
finding  empirical  values  of  the  constants  of  irradiation  for  the 
different  planets  and  satellites  of  the  solar  system.  He  dwelt  on 
the  problems  of  irradiation  altogether  nearly  half  an  hour,  and 
when  satisfied  with  the  account  given  passed  on  to  the  problem 
of  a  resisting  medium  and  the  motions  of  comets,  and  their  de- 
rangement in  moving  through  the  system  of  Jupiter's  satellites, 
which  has  been  considerably  studied  by  astronomers  since  the 
earliest  researches  of  Laplace  and  Burckhardt  a  century  ago. 

The  other  work  carried  on  so  unremittingly  by  Professor  See 
from  1899  to  1902  was  the  measurement  of  the  positions  of  the 
satellites  of  the  solar  system.  This  included  extensive  observa- 
tions of  eight  satellites  of  Saturn,  four  of  Uranus,  and  one  of 
Neptune;  besides  measurements  of  the  diameters  of  all  the  satel- 
lites which  have  sensible  discs.  The  satellite  program  was  thus 
an  extensive  campaign,  and  the  measures  made  have  since  proved 
to  be  accurate  and  well  adapted  to  the  determination  of  precise 
orbits. 

See's  observations  have  been  used  by  Dyson,  Bergstrand, 
Struve,  and  several  other  astronomers  for  improving  the  theories 
of  the  motions  of  these  bodies.  The  two  inner  satellites  of  Uranus 
proved  to  be  excessively  faint;  and  the  same  was  true  of  Hyperion 
in  the  system  of  Saturn,  but  by  screening  off  the  glare  of  the  planet, 
Professor  See  was  able  to  get  an  excellent  series  of  measures,  when 
these  objects  could  scarcely  be  seen  by  any  other  astronomer  in 
the  world,  owing  to  the  low  southern  declination  of  Saturn  and 
Uranus,  which  placed  them  below  the  reach  of  European  observers. 

Altogether  it  may  be  said  that  the  campaign  on  the  diameters 
of  the  planets  and  the  positions  of  the  satellites  attracted  wide  and 


THE  PLANET  MERCURY. 

As  glimpsed  by  T.  J.  J.  See  with  the  26-inch  refractor  at  Wash- 
ington, in  June,  1901.  It  had  long  been  known  from  photometric  obser- 
vations that  Mercury  behaved  like  the  Moon,  flashing  out  with  great 
brilliancy  near  opposition,  but  otherwise  reflecting  very  little  light.  If  the 
surface  of  the  planet  were  very  rough  and  covered  with  craters  and  maria, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Moon,  this  behavior  would  be  explained.  Professor 
See  was  the  first  observer  to  glimpse  this  Moon-like  aspect  of  Mercury 
at  moments  of  the  best  seeing.  (From  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II.) 


J  " 

b  a 

W  £ 

S  S 

H  £ 


A    GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    EARTH    AND    MOON    AS   THEY    WOULD    APPEAR 
FROM    A    POINT    IN   SPACE. 


THE    PLANET    MARS    AS   DRAWN    AND    PHOTOGRAPHED    BY    LOWELL. 

The  latter  view  is  the  drawing  made  from  a  number  of  the  Lowell  photographs  by  the 
skillful  hand  of  Mr.  W.  H.  Wesley,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society. 

THE   PLANETS,  THE   EARTH   AND   MOON,  AND  MARS. 
(From  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II). 


DRAWINGS  OF  THE  PLANET  JUPITER. 

Made  by  Keeler  at  Lick  Observatory,  1889.     (From  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II.) 


THE  PLANET  SATURN, 

As  Drawn  by  Proctor,  but  modified  to  take  account  of  the  Extension  of  the  Dusky  Ring  observed  by 
T.  J.  J.  See  at  Washington  in  1901  (A.N.,  3768).   (From  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910,  Plate  XXII). 


FIG.  o.     THE  PLANET  URANUS,  WITH  EQUATORIAL  BELTS. 
As  drawn  by  the  Henry  Brothers  at  Paris,  1884. 


FIG.  b.     DRAWING  OF  THE  PLANET  NEPTUNE. 

Showing  the  faint  equatorial  belts  discovered  by  T.  J.  J.  See  with 
the  26-inch  refractor  at  Washington,  Oct.  10,  1899.  Views  of  the 
planets  Uranus  and  Neptune.  (From  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II.) 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  75 

favorable  notice  throughout  the  world.  Professor  See's  great 
activity  was  especially  commended  by  the  celebrated  French 
astronomer  Callandreau,  and  by  such  observers  as  Schiaparelli, 
Struve,  Burnham,  Barnard,  and  a  number  of  others;  while  the 
results  of  this  work  naturally  were  rapidly  adopted  in  the  litera- 
ture of  science. 

One  other  very  notable  feature  of  See's  labors  at  the  Naval 
Observatory  relates  to  the  improvement  of  the  personnel.  There 
was  a  well  known  advancement  in  the  standard  of  the  Observatory 
as  a  whole  between  1899  and  1902,  and  in  this  upward  movement 
See  naturally  took  a  leading  part.  Young  men  of  promise  and 
ability  were  encouraged  and  given  opportunity  for  some  dis- 
tinction, with  the  result  that  there  was  a  general  advance  in  the 
standard  and  quality  of  all  the  scientific  work.  Accordingly  this 
proof  of  progress  attracted  considerable  attention  not  only  in 
America,  but  also  in  Europe.  The  work  of  this  period  in  the 
history  of  the  Observatory  will  always  be  recognized  as  one  of 
high  promise  and  proved  efficiency. 

See  had  not  only  worked  very  hard  ever  since  entering  the 
service  in  1899,  but  also  without  the  usual  vacations,  and  in  1901 
was  found  to  be  suffering  from  stomach  trouble  and  sleeplessness, 
due  to  disturbance  of  the  digestive  processes.  He  had  with  diffi- 
culty kept  up  with  the  heavy  program  of  work  in  1901  and  1902; 
and  when  he  was  detached  from  the  Observatory  in  September, 
1902,  a  leave  of  absence  for  some  months  of  rest  was  found  ad- 
visable. Full  recovery  did  not  follow  very  quickly,  but  was  a 
gradual  process  of  some  years.  The  difficulty  was  somewhat 
increased  by  the  unfamiliar  duties  and  surroundings  at  the  Naval 
Academy.  Whilst  partial  recovery  was  attained  at  the  Naval 
Academy,  full  recovery  was  not  possible  till  several  years  had  been 
spent  at  increased  outdoor  activity  in  the  beautiful  climate  of 
California. 

The  three  and  a  half  years  which  Professor  See  spent  at  the 
Naval  Observatory  were  well  employed,  and  led  to  beautiful  and 
important  results,  in  the  way  of  measurements  with  the  large 


76  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

telescope;  but  the  work  was  done  at  a  very  considerable  sacrifice 
of  health  and  strength.  It  was  profitable  intellectually,  but 
physically  exhausting. 

In  addition  to  the  work  of  observing  with  the  great  telescope 
See  investigated  the  orbit  of  the  satellite  of  Neptune;  and  also 
the  orbits  of  several  double  stars.  One  double  star,  known  as 
13  Ceti,  was  found  to  be  moving  very  rapidly.  The  period  later 
on  turned  out  to  be  only  7.4  years,  the  second  most  rapid  known 
visual  binary  yet  discovered. 

The  double  star  measures  at  Washington  naturally  were  taken 
at  odd  times,  when  the  planetary  observations  could  not  be  made. 
They  were  thus  of  minor  importance,  and  yet  led  to  a  number  of 
valuable  individual  results. 

In  addition  to  these  several  lines  of  work  Professor  See  carried 
out  a  critical  investigation  of  the  micrometer  screw  of  the  large 
telescope,  by  an  elaborate  triangulation  of  the  Pleiades.  This 
requires  extremely  delicate  and  accurate  work,  because  all  the 
observations  of  the  large  telescope  depend  on  the  result  obtained. 
When  the  measures  were  all  reduced  they  were  found  to  be  very 
accordant,  and  ranked  See  as  one  of  the  most  accurate  of  living 
observers. 

In  the  year  1901  the  little  planet  Eros  came  very  near  the 
earth,  and  an  elaborate  international  campaign  was  entered  upon 
for  determining  the  parallax  of  the  sun.  The  Washington  observa- 
tions were  made  by  See.  When  reduced  in  1908,  they  proved  to  be 
remarkably  accurate.  They  were  discussed  by  Hinks  of  Cam- 
bridge, England,  and  by  the  Naval  Observatory  at  Washington, 
and  found  to  give  a  solar  parallax  of  8".806,  while  the  standard 
value  most  used  by  astronomers  is  8".796.  It  was  thus  accurate 
within  one-thousandth  part  of  the  whole.  The  work  of  the  Lick 
Observatory  agreed  almost  exactly  with  See's  work  at  Washington, 
and  seemed  to  indicate  that  after  all  the  true  value  is  a  little  larger 
than  8".800. 

From  this  survey  of  Professor  See's  researches  at  the  Naval 
Observatory,  it  will  be  apparent  that  he  attained  eminent  success 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  77 

in  every  line  of  inquiry  undertaken.  This  is  the  real  test  of  effi- 
ciency. He  who  makes  a  first  rank  success  in  the  work  under- 
taken, when  the  work  itself  is  of  high  quality,  is  a  genuine  leader 
in  science.  Other  astronomers,  as  those  at  the  Lick  and  Yerkes 
observatories,  had  larger  instruments  than  See;  but  no  one  of  them 
has  done  work  of  more  classic  standard.  Thus  more  depends  on 
the  judgement  and  sagacity  of  the  astronomer  in  choosing  his 
work  and  devising  good  methods  for  doing  it,  than  on  mere  size 
of  telescope.  In  other  words  it  is  the  astronomer  at  the  little  end 
of  the  telescope  who  wins  the  laurels  of  science,  just  as  it  is  the 
man  behind  the  gun  who  wins  the  victory  in  battle. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
1902-1913. 

AT  THE  NAVAL  ACADEMY  AND  MARE  ISLAND. 

ILL     HEALTH     AND     RECOVERY:      BEGINNING     OF     UNPARALLELED 
RECORD  OF  DISCOVERY  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


several  months  after  he  was  transferred  to  the  Naval 
Academy,  Professor  See  was  too  ill  for  duty,  but  yet  kept 
active  outdoors,  hoping  to  wear  off  the  tendency  to  sleep- 
lessness. He  took  long  walks  in  the  country  daily,  and  also  rowed 
in  a  boat  on  Chesapeake  Bay.  This  was  all  of  some  value,  but 
the  trouble  would  yield  only  in  part.  The  great  difficulty  was  that 
See  was  afflicted  with  a  severe  internal  catarrhal  condition  ap- 
proaching a  mild  form  of  appendicitis,  but  even  the  most  experi- 
enced physicians  were  unable  to  discover  the  real  nature  of  the 
disturbance,  till  a  violent  attack  occurred  in  1909,  and  an  opera- 
tion gave  permanent  relief. 

As  soon  as  he  could  go  on  duty  at  the  Academy,  in  February 
1903,  he  was  engaged  in  teaching  the  midshipmen  mathematics. 
This  work  was  mainly  in  algebra,  trigonometry  and  spherical  pro- 
jections; and  proved  very  interesting,  because  of  the  charm  of 
manner  of  the  midshipmen.  It  would  have  been  perfectly  delight- 
ful if  Professor  See  had  not  been  in  ailing  health;  so  that  even 
three  hours  of  instruction  caused  him  considerable  fatigue.  As 
it  was  he  enjoyed  the  work,  and  formed  lasting  attachments  to 
the  young  officers  under  his  instruction,  many  of  whom  are  now 
lieutenants. 

Pursuing  a  method  different  from  most  of  the  instructors  at 
the  Academy,  See  would  help  the  midshipmen  along  when  they 
were  embarrassed  and  likely  to  fail,  by  hinting  how  they  might 
start  to  solve  their  problems.  The  result  was  that  they  made 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  79 

rapid  headway  under  him,  whereas  they  would  have  been  dis- 
heartened under  a  less  sympathetic  teacher.  And  after  a  short 
time  the  classes  which  were  most  deficient  in  mathematics  were 
assigned  to  Professor  See,  so  that  by  his  help  they  could  regain 
their  standing.  In  this  way  he  acquired  a  great  reputation  for 
saving  the  members  of  the  class  who  might  otherwise  have  been 
dropped.  Naturally  there  was  general  regret  at  the  Academy 
when  it  was  learned  that  he  was  to  be  transferred  to  the  Naval 
Observatory  at  Mare  Island,  California. 

Professor  See  had  remained  on  duty  at  the  Academy  all 
summer  in  1903,  and  was  bringing  up  the  midshipmen  who  were 
deficient  in  trigonometry  and  spherical  projections.  The  weather 
had  been  hot  and  enervating,  and  he  was  seriously  afraid  of  losing 
his  health  permanently.  The  prospect  of  such  duty,  without 
improvement  in  his  physical  condition,  was  far  from  reassuring; 
and  he  hoped  for  duty  in  which  he  could  at  least  recover  his  health. 
When  he  was  told  that  he  could  have  duty  at  Mare  Island,  where 
the  climate  would  be  ideal,  it  did  much  to  reconcile  him  to  life  on 
the  west  coast.  There  his  health  was  gradually  improved,  till 
he  had  the  full  vigor  of  his  early  years,  except  that  the  tendency 
to  mild  appendicitis  occasionally  produced  some  inconvenience. 

As  the  method  employed  by  Professor  See  for  restoring  his 
health  is  of  some  interest  to  others,  it  may  be  related  here  very 
briefly.  Ever  since  settling  at  Washington  in  1899,  his  sister,  Mrs. 
A.  M.  Weeks,  had  lived  with  him,  and  thus  he  had  his  own  house- 
hold, with  food  and  cooking  of  the  kind  desired.  The  eminent 
Dr.  Franz  A.  R.  Jung,  of  Washington,  had  been  his  medical  ad- 
viser there,  and  had  given  him  the  necessary  instruction  in  the 
articles  of  diet.  Suitable  bread,  however,  proved  very  difficult 
to  obtain,  and  the  problem  was  not  solved  till  December,  1904, 
when  in  desperation  over  the  internal  soreness  which  afflicted  him, 
Professor  See  began  to  grind  his  own  flour  with  a  hand-mill.  This 
produced  as  flour  a  coarse  product  of  the  whole  wheat,  and  when 
baked  as  muffins,  with  egg,  salt,  soda  and  butter  milk,  it  gave 
a  bread  at  once  very  delicious  and  very  wholesome. 


80  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

This  bread  is  emphatically  superior  to  anything  heretofore 
known  to  the  medical  profession,  and  several  doctors  have  used 
it  with  great  benefit  to  their  health.  As  soon  as  the  new  flour  was 
tried  the  first  time,  it  was  realized  that  at  last  they  had  found 
Nature's  own  remedy.  Professor  See  rapidly  recovered  and  built 
up  his  general  strength  to  the  ideal  point,  by  living  carefully  on 
this  muffin  bread  of  coarse  whole  wheat  flour,  and  taking  long 
walks  in  the  country,  about  Mare  Island.  Sometimes  he  would 
go  ten  miles  a  day,  and  seldom  less  than  six.  During  1905,  there- 
fore, he  was  able  to  carry  out  the  very  long  and  difficult  investi- 
gations on  the  sun.  Previously,  just  before  leaving  the  Academy, 
he  had  finished  and  published  an  important  mathematical  investi- 
gation on  Laplace's  Invariable  Plane  of  the  solar  system. 

A  more  complete  account  of  the  several  investigations  made 
at  Mare  Island  will  be  given  in  the  following  chapters.  Here  it 
must  suffice  to  note  the  order  of  the  work,  which  was  as  follows: 

1.  Researches  on  the  Internal  Constitution  and  Rigidity  of 
the  Heavenly  Bodies,  1904-6. 

2.  Researches  on   the  Cause  of  Earthquakes,   Mountain 
Formation,  and  kindred  phenomena  connected  with  the  Physics 
of  the  Earth,  1906-8. 

3.  Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Solar  System  and  of 
Cosmical  Systems  generally,  1908-9. 

4.  Publication  of  Volume  II  of  the  Researches  on  the  Evolu- 
tion of  the  Stellar  Systems,  1910;  735  pages  quarto,  with  fifty-seven 
full  page  plates,  and  other  figures  in  text.    This  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  a  New  Science  of  Cosmogony. 

5.  Determination  of  the  Depth  of  the  Milky  Way,  1911. 

6.  Dynamical  Theory  of  the  Globular  Clusters  and  of  the 
Clustering  Power  inferred  by  Herschel  from  the  observed  figures 
of  Sidereal  Systems  of  high  order,  1912. 

A  study  of  this  order  will  show  that  the  researches  on  the 
sun  and  planets,  in  1904-6,  paved  the  way  for  those  on  earth- 
quakes and  mountain  formation  in  1906-8.  But  for  his  recent 
work  on  the  internal  conditions  of  the  planets  See  probably  would 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  81 

not  have  been  able  to  detect  the  fallacy  in  the  old  theory  of  earth- 
quakes and  mountain  formation.  On  the  other  hand,  this  out- 
side work,  on  the  physics  of  the  earth,  in  1906-8,  gave  a  rest  to 
his  mind,  and  a  freshness,  which  enabled  him  to  solve  the  problems 
of  Cosmogony,  with  rapid  and  unprecedented  success,  when  they 
were  resumed  in  1908.  The  correct  solution  of  the  individual  prob- 
lems of  Cosmogony  thus  gave  the  basis  for  a  wholly  New  Science 
of  Cosmogony.  And  in  1911  See  was  able  to  fathom  the  depth  of 
the  Milky  Way,  by  methods  of  greater  certainty  than  those  em- 
ployed by  Sir  William  Herschel.  He  thus  found  the  depth  of  the 
Galaxy  about  a  thousand  times  greater  than  astronomers  have  recently 
believed. 

Lastly,  in  1912,  he  triumphantly  confirmed  by  mathematical 
methods  of  a  high  order  the  general  argument  outlined  by  Her- 
schel a  century  and  a  quarter  ago  to  show  that  the  star  clusters 
developed  by  the  drawing  together  of  stars  formed  separately 
and  originally  at  much  greater  distance  apart.  This  enabled  Pro- 
fessor See  to  render  the  foundations  of  the  New  Science  of  Cos- 
mogony much  more  secure,  and  in  fact  to  base  Cosmogony  on  a 
fundamental  law  of  the  sidereal  universe,  of  which  a  fuller  account 
will  appear  later  in  Chapter  XV. 

On  June  18,  1907,  Professor  See  was  married  to  Miss  Frances 
Graves,  daughter  of  the  late  Dr.  James  F.  and  Fannie  (Jefferson) 
Graves,  of  Montgomery  City,  Mo.  Mrs.  See's  family  came  orig- 
inally from  Virginia,  but  they  have  lived  in  the  county  for  some 
seventy  years.  Her  father  was  for  thirty  years  one  of  the  best 
beloved  and  most  highly  respected  physicians  in  eastern  Missouri. 
Her  mother,  who  raised  a  family  of  ten  children,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  women  in  the  United  States,  is  the  daughter  of 
the  late  Hon.  Booker  Jefferson,  of  the  famous  Jefferson  family  of 
Virginia. 

Professor  and  Mrs.  See  lead  a  simple  home  life,  going  but 
little  in  society,  and  are  both  very  fond  of  children.  To  their 
infinite  grief  they  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  their  fine  infant  son, 
born  July  28,  1909. 


82  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Mrs.  See  had  some  years'  experience  as  a  teacher  both  in 
Missouri  and  in  New  Mexico,  and  was  very  successful.  Her 
education  at  the  University  of  Missouri  and  in  school  work  gave 
her  the  command  of  exact  methods  and  thorough  knowledge  of 
many  branches.  She  is  fond  of  music,  well  read  in  literature,  and 
speaks  Spanish  fluently.  Naturally  taking  a  great  deal  of  interest 
in  the  scientific  work  of  her  distinguished  husband,  she  has  proved 
a  tower  of  strength  to  him  on  numerous  occasions,  but  more  es- 
pecially when  he  was  unexpectedly  stricken  with  a  violent  attack 
of  appendicitis,  January  11,  1909. 

Fortunately  he  was  in  excellent  health  at  the  time,  and  but 
for  that  could  hardly  have  survived  this  terrible  attack.  For 
sixteen  days  the  operation  was  delayed,  in  the  hope  of  reducing 
the  fever  and  obtaining  more  favorable  conditions,  but  finally 
it  had  to  be  made  after  all  this  illness.  In  consequence  of  the 
delay  the  case  became  so  grave  that  for  many  days  Professor 
See's  life  was  despaired  of.  But  it  was  not  long  after  the  operation 
was  made  till  the  process  of  recovery  appeared  and  proved  to  be 
so  rapid*  and  satisfactory  as  to  surprise  his  physicians.  Professor 
See  was  fortunate  to  have  had  the  eminent  professional  services 
of  surgeon  H.  E.  Odell,  U.S.  Navy.  Without  very  skillful  surgical 
treatment  his  recovery  would  not  have  been  possible. 

It  is  worthy  of  mention  here  that  for  weeks,  while  Professor 
See  lay  at  the  point  of  death,  with  the  doctors  in  despair,  Mrs. 
See  nursed  him,  and  cooked  and  brought  from  home  a  mile  distant, 
the  slight  liquid  nourishment,  which  alone  is  allowable  in  such 
grave  illness.  But  for  this  heroic  devotion  it  seems  certain  that 
his  life  would  have  been  cut  short  before  his  greatest  discoveries 
were  given  to  the  world.  A  touching  and  beautiful  tribute  to  his 
wife's  devotion  in  this  crisis  is  duly  recorded  on  the  last  page  of 
the  monumental  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910,  as  follows: 

"But  of  all  the  persons  to  whom  I  am  indebted,  I  owe  most 
to  my  wife,  MRS.  FRANCES  GRAVES  SEE.  Without  her 
devotion  through  a  dangerous  illness,  the  author  could  scarcely 
have  survived  to  finish  the  work,  and  without  her  constant  sup- 

*  Due  to  life-long  habits  of  total  abstinence  from  liquors  or  tobacco  in  any 
form. 


MRS.  T.  J.  J.  SEE. 

Daughter  of  the  late  Dr.  James  F.  Graves  of  Montgomery  Gity,  Mo.,  and  grand-daughter  of 

Hon.  Booker  Jefferson. 


O    £ 

fa 


8 


II 

w   « 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  83 

port  and  encouragement  the  steadfast  labor  and  sacrifices  required 
for  the  development  and  publication  of  this  large  volume  could 
not  have  been  undertaken.  If  it  contains  any  important  dis- 
coveries I  wish  it  always  to  be  remembered  that  she  contributed 
in  an  eminent  degree  to  their  development  and  presentation  to 
the  scientific  world." 

After  Professor  See's  recovery  the  difficulty  of  getting  the 
second  volume  of  these  Researches  through  the  press  proved  to  be 
enormous.  But  little  of  the  work  was  in  form  for  printing  when 
he  left  the  hospital,  February  18,  1909.  All  the  work  had  to  be 
prepared  and  arranged  as  fast  as  the  printer  needed  the  manu- 
script. This  proved  very  difficult,  but  by  July,  1909,  Professor 
See's  strength  was  better  than  for  many  years,  and  this  alone 
enabled  him  to  carry  that  great  undertaking  to  completion. 

After  the  loss  of  her  infant  son,  Mrs.  See  herself  was  ill,  and 
long  required  careful  attention  and  treatment.  This  naturally 
added  to  the  difficulties  under  which  Professor  See  labored.  Often 
he  would  go  to  the  office  at  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  when 
everyone  else  at  Mare  Island  was  asleep,  in  order  to  be  free  of 
interruption  in  writing  out  the  chapters  of  the  second  volume  of 
his  famous  Researches.  They  were  thus  prepared  between  numer- 
ous and  pressing  engagements,  and  yet  they  have  all  the  finish 
and  elegance  characteristic  of  the  most  perfect  work  of  the  human 
intellect.  It  has  been  justly  remarked  that  See's  rapid  and  re- 
markable development  of  the  second  volume  of  his  Researches  is 
comparable  only  to  Newton's  writing  of  the  Principia  in  1685-6; 
and  the  two  intellectual  triumphs  equally  important  and  unprec- 
edented. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  list  of  researches  mentioned  above 
that  Professor  See's  activity  at  Mare  Island  is  by  far  the  most 
important  of  his  life.  Not  only  are  the  individual  results  the 
most  striking,  but  also  the  most  closely  related  one  to  another, 
giving  an  unparalleled  series  of  achievements  of  the  very  first 
order.  The  result  of  this  wonderful  activity  has  been  the  creation 
of  an  entirely  New  Science  of  the  Starry  Heavens,  at  an  epoch  so 


84  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

late  in  the  world's  history  that  everyone  believed  that  all  the 
Sciences  already  had  been  developed.* 

Cosmogony  naturally  has  been  a  most  difficult  science  to 
treat,  because  the  Creative  Processes  are  not  directly  visible  to  the 
watchers  of  the  skies,  but  must  be  inferred  from  the  observed  order 
of  the  universe.  Moreover  it  must  harmonize  many  apparently 
discordant  phenomena,  and  involves  mathematical  knowledge 
of  a  high  order.  Obviously  all  the  reasoning  must  be  founded  on 
correct  premises;  and  it  happens  that  these  false  assumptions  are 
the  rocks  on  which  shipwreck  was  most  frequently  experienced. 

The  other  fact  of  importance  is  that  prior  to  the  Researches 
of  See  there  was  no  deep  study  of  the  subject;  but  in  all  former 
efforts  the  premises  of  Laplace  were  assumed,  without  any  critical 
investigation  to  determine  whether  these  premises  were  admissi- 
ble. At  last  it  is  gratifying  to  find  that  all  such  illogical  proced- 
ure is  altered;  for  a  new  foundation  was  found  to  be  necessary, 
and  built  up  on  a  basis  as  solid  as  a  mountain  of  granite.  With 
this  new  foundation  once  correctly  laid,  the  resulting  new  science 
is  greatly  simplified,  and  all  the  celestial  phenomena  easily  harmo- 
nized, so  as  to  make  Cosmogony  the  latest  science  of  the  starry 
heavens. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  Professor  See's  life  at  Mare  Island 
has  been  one  of  great  activity.  In  addition  to  walking  in  the 
country,  for  the  contemplation  of  the  beautiful  scenery  of  the 
earth,  sea,  and  sky,  and  especially  of  the  mountains,  and  glorious 
sunsets  of  California,  he  is  fond  of  gardening  and  all  kinds  of  out- 
door exercise.  A  recent  trip  to  the  Yosemite  Valley  and  the  Big 
Trees  was  the  joy  of  his  life.  His  house  is  full  of  fine  pictures, 
including  magnificent  oil  paintings  of  the  Yosemite,  Lake  Tahoe, 
the  Sierras,  and  the  Himalayas. 

As  mentioned  in  Chapter  II  his  natural  taste  for  art  dates 

from  childhood.    These  fine  paintings  and  natural  scenery  of  the 

mountains  seem  to  inspire  his  imagination  with  the  eagle-soaring 

flights  required  for  the  development  of  new  sciences  of  the  universe. 

*  The  New  Science  of  Geogony  was  also  developed  at  Mare  Island. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  85 

It  is  well  known  that  the  illustrious  Sir  William  Huggins 
had  a  similar  taste  for  beautiful  things  and  delighted  in  the  con- 
templation of  them  in  his  study.  Such  taste  was  characteristic 
of  the  Greek  mind,  and  as  Professor  See  is  thoroughly  Hellenic 
in  his  feelings  for  truth  and  beauty  in  poetry  and  art,  it  may  be 
that  Professor  Fleet  was  more  of  a  prophet  than  was  believed 
when  he  used  to  tell  his  classes  that  young  Mr.  See  was  like  the 
typical  Greek. 

Since  his  settlement  at  Mare  Island  Professor  See  has  passed 
in  rapid  review  authoritative  judgment  upon  many  of  the  greatest 
problems  of  the  universe;  and  not  only  summarized  the  work  pre- 
viously done  by  others,  but  added  to  it  capital  discoveries  of  his 
own.  It  has  been  generally  remarked  by  eminent  men  of  science 
that  in  every  line  of  research  his  development  was  amazingly 
original.  Without  this  spirit  of  daring,  this  soaring  on  the  wings 
of  Pegasus,  probably  it  would  not  have  been  possible  to  introduce 
order  into  Cosmogony,  where  only  bewilderment  and  chaos  had 
reigned  before. 

The  small  and  the  timid  naturally  would  be  too  cowardly  to 
lead  in  this  great  enterprise.  Fortunately,  it  is  not  so  with  Pro- 
fessor See.  He  recognized  no  authority  save  that  of  demon- 
strable truth,  based  in  the  centralizing  tendency  of  the  force  of 
gravitation  and  the  dispersion  of  dust  from  the  stars  under  re- 
pulsive forces.  This  cyclic  order  in  Nature  rests  on  sound  sense, 
and  the  logic  of  Mathematics.  And  having  once  made  sure  that 
he  was  right  in  his  premises,  like  Davy  Crockett,  See  dared  to  go 
ahead. 

As  the  public  often  is  unable  to  distinguish  between  a  true 
cloud  of  God's  firmament,  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  life-giving 
rain,  and  a  mere  mass  of  dust  stirred  up  by  the  activity  of  the 
envious,  we  may  point  out  that  the  evil  spirit  of  professional 
jealousy  is  a  curious  thing.  It  is  in  fact  nothing  but  an  effort  of 
the  weak  to  pull  down  the  strong,  in  order  that  they  may  keep 
afloat  on  the  stream  of  time.  To  concede  frankly  the  true  value 
of  the  achievements  of  the  really  great  would  leave  the  weak  with- 


86  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

out  a  raison  d'etre;  and  naturally  they  like  to  justify  their  own 
existence,  even  if  they  are  inefficient.  Accordingly  whenever  we 
see  some  one  very  grudging  in  acknowledging  the  merits  of  another, 
in  the  same  line  of  activity,  we  may  suspect  that  he  is  too  small 
to  be  generous,  or  even  fair  and  just.  The  world  is  full  of  this 
kind  of  business,  and  it  pervades  every  walk  of  life. 

It  cankers  the  lives  of  statesmen,  literary  men,  artists,  poets, 
and  scientists  alike.  Only  the  really  great  rise  above  petty  jeal- 
ousy; for  the  sun's  light  is  not  dimmed  by  that  of  a  candle.  And 
so  it  is  in  the  world  of  science.  Only  the  great  feel  that  they  can 
afford  to  be  fair,  whereas  as  a  matter  of  fact  no  one  can  really 
afford  to  be  unfair,  but  the  small  are  so  narrow  that  they  cannot 
see  the  unworthiness  of  such  conduct.  It  is  well  known  that  Pro- 
fessor See  is  a  great  comfort  to  his  friends,  in  that  he  is  never  dis- 
turbed by  outbreaks  of  jealousy,  but  quietly  pursues  the  assuring 
even  tenor  of  his  way.  Incidents  which  would  distress  less  calm 
individuals  do  not  disturb  him.  In  fact  he  says  jealousy  is  a 
favorable  sign  of  progress,  and  advises  his  friends  to  be  on  the 
lookout  for  it. 

If  these  weaknesses  of  human  nature  are  very  deplorable, 
See  probably  reasons  that  they  do  not  sway  the  judgment  of 
history.  Only  he  who  is  truly  great  will  have  his  name  chiseled 
upon  the  sacred  walls  of  her  temple.  The  efforts  to  inscribe  thereon 
the  names  of  the  small  and  inefficient  is  vain  and  fleeting  like  rec- 
ords written  in  dust,  only  to  be  washed  away  by  the  first  shower 
of  rain  that  descends  from  the  clouds  of  God's  firmament. 

It  is  doubly  beautiful  if  the  great  in  ability  are  also  morally 
great,  so  as  to  present  the  aspect  of  a  really  commanding  and 
heroic  figure  in  history,  who  will  shine  throughout  all  time.  Many 
of  the  most  eminent  philosophers  are  of  this  grand  type.  Thus 
the  luster  of  Newton  and  Herschel  grows  brighter  rather  than 
dimmer  with  the  flight  of  ages.  Every  generation  has  remarked 
how  great  were  the  labors  they  had  to  endure,  how  dear  the  heart's 
blood  they  had  to  sacrifice!  To  such  wonderful  men  the  world 
pays  no  adequate  reward.  They  are  beyond  all  praise  and  above 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  87 

all  price !  The  very  wealth  of  a  nation,  great  as  it  is,  could  not  buy 
them,  nor  any  process  of  searching  for  their  equals  replace  them. 
It  has  been  justly  said  that  great  men  are  the  chief  assets  of  nations. 
They  are  the  crowning  glory  of  the  human  race! 

If  it  be  sad  to  think  how  little  the  greatest  men  are  appreci- 
ated during  their  life  time,  it  is  yet  comforting  to  remember  that, 
as  was  said  of  the  dying  Lincoln,  they  belong  to  the  ages,  and  their 
light  does  not  go  out  with  their  lives.  The  work  of  the  great 
philosopher  endureth  unto  all  generations,  as  ageless  as  the 
heavens. 

Some  readers  may  not  realize  that  the  discoveries  of  Professor 
See  belong  to  the  whole  earth,  and  not  merely  his  native  state. 
They  will  even  outlast  the  Republic  itself,  and  still  be  the  topic  of 
contemplation  for  philosophers  when  many  thousands  of  years 
have  elapsed;  just  as  the  works  of  Aristotle  and  Plato  now  belong 
not  to  Greece  but  to  all  mankind  and  to  all  time.  It  would  be 
especially  fortunate  for  America  and  her  people  if  she  is  able  to 
appreciate  her  great  men  during  their  life  time;  for  that  would 
show  an  enlightened  State,  and  stand  to  her  credit  in  history. 
Such  biographies  as  this,  it  is  hoped,  may  thus  be  of  no  small  public 
service. 

Since  genius  of  the  highest  order  is  wholly  beneficial  to  the 
State,  and  men  of  this  type  derive  little  or  no  pecuniary  reward 
for  their  efforts,  they  deserve  and  ought  to  have  public  apprecia- 
tion, since  this  sustains  them  in  doing  the  work  which  the  Deity 
intended  them  to  do.  After  Newton  had  struggled  along  through 
one  disappointment  after  another,  and  finally  accomplished  his 
great  work,  not  so  much  by  virtue  of  generous  appreciation,  as  in 
spite  of  public  indifference,  the  poet  Thomson  speaks  of  him  thus: 

"Say  ye  who  best  can  tell,  ye  happy  few, 
Who  saw  him  in  the  softest  lights  of  life, 
All  unwithheld,  indulging  to  his  friends 
The  vast  unborrowed  treasures  of  his  mind. 
Oh,  speak  the  wondrous  man!    how  mild,  how  calm, 


88  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

How  greatly  humble,  how  divinely  good, 
How  firm  established  on  eternal  truth! 
Fervent  in  doing  well,  with  every  nerve 
Still  pressing  on,  forgetful  of  the  past, 
And  panting  for  perfection;  far  above 
Those  little  cares  and  visionary  joys 
That  so  perplex  the  fond  impasssiored  heart 
Of  ever-cheated,  ever-trusting  man." 

When  will  an  American  poet  sing  of  the  labors  of  the  Newton 
of  Cosmogony?  This  would  be  a  task  of  no  mean  order,  and  require 
a  genius  like  that  of  eagle-soaring  Pindar.  After  See,  too,  shall 
have  passed  away,  happy  will  be  the  few  who  can  boast  that  they 

"Saw  him  in  the  softest  lights  of  life, 
All  unwithheld,  indulging  to  his  friends 
The  vast  unborrowed  treasures  of  his  mind," 

mild,  calm  and  good,  like  Newton,  but  withal  having  also,  like 
the  author  of  the  Principia,  vigor,  and  courage,  to  war  against 
wrong  and  injustice,  whether  it  be  practiced  by  a  King  in  tramp- 
ling on  the  rights  of  a  University,  or  by  a  clique  of  grafters  among 
men  of  science.  Historians  have  remarked  that  Newton's  whole 
life  was  a  struggle  against  injustice;  and  as  for  See  it  is  well  known 
that  he  never  shirks  his  duty  in  the  hard  work  of  this  world.  After 
truth  has  triumphed  all  seems  serene  and  simple,  but  establishing 
it  is  always  a  more  difficult  task,  and  thus  the  founder  of  a  new 
science  has  to  have  courage  as  well  as  humility. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
1904-1906 

POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  RESEARCHES  ON  THE  INTERNAL  CON- 
STITUTION OF  THE  SUN  AND  THE  PLANETS. 

'HE  Naval  Observatory  at  Mare  Island,  California,  has  no 
telescope  larger  than  a  five-inch  refractor,  which  is  a  mere 
pigmy  compared  to  the  giant  telescopes  which  Professor 
See  had  used  at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  Arizona,  the  Naval  Obser- 
vatory at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  elsewhere.  If  therefore  he  was 
to  make  any  important  scientific  researches  in  California,  it  could 
not  well  be  with  the  telescope  in  use  at  Mare  Island;  but  rather 
must  be  work  along  mathematical  lines,  in  which  nothing  but  a 
few  books  and  a  clear  head  is  required. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  Astronomy  all  the  important 
discoveries  are  not  made  with  telescopes,  much  of  the  highest  work 
being  purely  a  matter  of  theoretical  research  or  mathematical 
calculation.  There  are  telescopic  discoveries  of  facts  made  by 
looking  through  instruments,  and  others  of  theoretical  or  mathe- 
matical character,  even  more  important,  made  by  the  mind's  eye, 
in  the  quiet  study  of  the  mathematical  astronomer. 

As  Professor  See  was  without  large  instruments  at  Mare  Is- 
land, he  naturally  turned  to  account  his  great  abilities  as  a  mathe- 
matician. Thus  where  a  mere  telescopic  observer  would  have 
failed,  See  achieved  a  triumph  of  the  first  order,  when  in  fact  no 
one  expected  it.  When  he  came  to  Mare  Island  in  November, 
1903,  the  place  was  quite  unknown  to  the  scientific  world;  now 
it  is  known  in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  earth  for  a  series  of  dis- 
coveries of  the  highest  significance. 

This  brilliant  achievement  did  not  come  by  chance,  but  re- 
sulted from  the  consummate  ability  of  the  astronomer  in  charge 
of  the  Mare  Island  Observatory.  See  has  always  made  it  a  prac- 


90  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

tice  to  take  up  those  lines  of  inquiry  in  which  he  could  attain  the 
first  rank  —  for  such  is  the  nature  of  leadership;  and  so  it  was  in 
the  unparalleled  series  of  discoveries  made  in  California. 

The  first  of  these  discoveries  related  to  the  internal  densities, 
pressures,  and  physical  constitution  of  the  sun  and  planets.  Prior 
to  Professor  See's  work  in  1904-6  the  interior  constitution  of  the 
planets  was  a  veritable  terra  incognita,  a  subject  on  which  nothing 
was  yet  known;  and  there  was  little  prospect  that  anyone  would 
attempt  to  explore  the  physical  conditions  down  in  the  depths  of 
the  planets.  We  cannot  descend  into  the  earth  or  other  planets, 
much  less  into  the  sun,  and  actually  observe  with  instruments 
what  the  conditions  are  in  these  dark  and  invisible  regions,  inside 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Many  therefore  doubtless  reasoned  that 
nothing  could  ever  be  known  of  the  state  of  the  matter  thus  inac- 
cessible to  our  observations.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark 
that  See  did  not  share  this  view  —  he  knew  too  well  the  power  of 
mathematics! 

He  had  long  ago  learned  to  calculate  all  manner  of  things  from 
the  Newtonian  law  of  gravitation.  And  he  realized  that  if  the 
arrangement  of  the  law  of  density  within  a  planet  such  as  the  earth 
could  be  made  out,  it  would  be  comparatively  easy  for  the  mathe- 
matician to  calculate  the  pressure  clear  down  to  the  center  of  the 
globe.  Each  layer  of  the  globe  presses  upon  the  layers  beneath 
it,  and  the  total  pressure  at  the  center  is  the  proper  sum  of  all  these 
combined  pressures,  which  can  be  calculated  by  the  higher  mathe- 
matical methods  known  as  the  Calculus,  the  first  principles  of 
which  were  invented  by  Newton  in  1666. 

Now  See  set  about  the  following  problems: 

1.  To  find  the  most  probable  laws  of  density  within  the  sun 
and  planets. 

2.  To  calculate  the  resulting  laws  of  pressure  in  the  interior 
of  these  bodies,  by  the  methods  of  higher  mathematics. 

3.  To  deduce  the  physical  properties  of  matter  thus  im- 
prisoned under  tremendous  pressure,  and  high  temperature. 

And  by  great  labor  during  the  years  1904-6  he  gradually 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  91 

solved  all  these  problems,  so  as  to  give  us  in  fact  a  new  science  of 
the  interior  constitution  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

To  understand  this  work,  let  us  first  consider  the  case  of  the 
earth.  Our  globe  appears  to  be  solid,  and  is  covered  by  a  rocky 
crust,  but  earthquake  movements  occur;  and  it  is  important  to 
know  whether  these  are  just  beneath  the  surface,  or  deep  down  in 
the  bowels  of  the  globe,  as  Humboldt  believed  to  be  the  case  three 
quarters  of  a  century  ago. 

See  first  investigated  the  law  of  density  of  the  earth  suggested 
by  Laplace,  and  satisfied  himself  by  careful  inquiry  that  it  must 
be  either  accurate  or  very  nearly  so.  The  proof  of  this  result  can- 
not be  given  here,  but  it  is  a  matter  on  which  astronomers  are 
essentially  agreed.  This  law  of  Laplace  makes  the  density  at  the 
earth's  center  11.2,  that  of  water  being  unity,  and  the  average 
density  of  the  whole  earth  5.5.  Thus  the  density  of  the  earth's 
matter  increases  quite  rapidly  as  we  go  down,  and  at  the  center 
becomes  equal  to  that  of  lead.  At  the  surface  the  density  is  2.55, 
so  that  the  central  density  is  over  four  times  that  at  the  surface. 

Without  going  into  the  methods  of  calculation  employed  by 
See,  we  may  say  that  he  found  the  pressure  at  the  earth's  center 
over  three  million  atmospheres,  each  atmosphere  being  the  weight 
of  a  column  of  quicksilver  thirty  inches  high,  as  in  a  barometer, 
or  fifteen  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  This  made  the  pressure  at 
the  earth's  center  over  45,000,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

To  represent  this  in  a  simple  way,  imagine  a  column  of  quick- 
silver—  an  immensely  heavy  liquid  considerably  denser  than 
lead  —  as  long  as  from  St.  Louis  to  San  Francisco.  Let  this 
column  be  erected  vertically,  in  a  tube  strong  enough  to  hold  it, 
and  every  part  of  it  pressing  down  just  as  quicksilver  does  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth;  then  the  tremendous  pressure  of  this  column 
1,700  miles  in  length  becomes  just  equal  to  the  pressure  at  the 
center  of  the  earth. 

Could  any  result  be  more  wonderful  than  this?  Yet  it  is  very 
accurate,  and  we  may  absolutely  depend  upon  it.  And  not  only 
did  See  find  the  pressure  at  the  center  of  the  earth,  but  also  the 


92  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

law  of  its  increase  as  we  go  downward,  from  the  surface,  where  it 
is  nothing,  to  the  center,  where  it  becomes  equal  to  the  weight  of 
a  vertical  column  of  quicksilver  as  long  as  from  St.  Louis  to  San 
Francisco. 

The  outcome  of  this  study  was  the  conclusion  that  the  greater 
the  pressure  the  more  difficult  it  is  for  the  matter  thus  imprisoned 
to  circulate  or  move  in  any  way.  Consequently  deep  down  in  the 
earth,  where  the  pressure  is  very  great  no  motion  ever  takes  place; 
and  the  only  place  where  motion  can  occur  is  just  beneath  the 
earth's  crust,  as  in  earthquake  movements.  In  fact  it  was  shown 
by  See  that  the  deep  interior  of  the  earth  always  is  absolutely 
quiescent;  and,  even  just  beneath  the  surface,  it  takes  all  the 
power  involved  in  the  throes  of  an  earthquake  to  enable  the  molten 
lava  to  readjust  itself.  In  this  readjustment  of  lava  the  crust 
naturally  is  terribly  shaken,  and  cities  may  be  laid  waste  and 
whole  countries  devastated. 

Accordingly  See  was  able  to  conclude  with  certainty  that 
Humboldt  was  wrong  in  holding  that  earthquake  disturbances  are 
propagated  from  deep  down  in  the  globe.  Measurements  by 
modern  seismographs  also  show  that  these  disturbances  are  shallow, 
in  no  case  exceeding  a  depth  of  some  twenty  miles,  which  is  the 
thickness  of  the  earth's  crust.  Earthquake  phenomena,  however, 
will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  the  next  chapter,  and  we  must  here 
treat  of  the  interior  conditions  of  the  other  planets. 

In  general  the  larger  the  body  the  greater  the  pressure  at  the 
center;  so  that  the  sun  has  at  its  center  by  far  the  greatest  pres- 
sure of  any  of  the  bodies  of  our  solar  system.  The  next  greatest 
pressure  is  in  the  center  of  Jupiter;  then  comes  Neptune,  Uranus, 
and  Saturn,  the  latter  coming  after  the  two  former  because  its 
average  density  is  very  small  (0.71  that  of  water). 

At  the  center  of  the  sun  the  pressure  becomes  11,215,540,300 
atmospheres,  each  amounting  to  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
This  is  equivalent  to  the  weight  of  a  column  of  quicksilver  about 
one-eighth  as  long  as  from  the  earth  to  the  sun,  when  all  parts  of 
it  press  downward,  as  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Truly  an 
amazing  pressure! 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  93 

To  form  some  idea  of  the  physical  condition  of  the  matter 
in  the  sun,  we  must  recall  that  it  is  at  a  temperature  of  millions 
of  degrees,  and  on  the  other  hand  held  in  confinement  by  this 
tremendous  pressure.  Therefore  the  matter  is  kept  so  "tight" 
as  to  be  highly  rigid,  though  it  would  prove  to  be  gaseous  if  the 
pressure  were  removed.  On  this  point  there  is  no  doubt  what- 
ever. Though  we  cannot  experiment  with  such  immense  forces, 
we  can  calculate  them  with  accuracy  and  certainty. 

A  very  good  comparison  of  the  state  of  the  matter  in  the 
interior  of  the  sun  was  made  by  Professor  Newcomb  some  years 
ago,  when  he  said  that  if  the  pressure  were  suddenly  relieved  this 
matter  would  instantly  expand,  and  in  fact  explode  with  a  violence 
exceeding  that  of  dynamite  or  any  other  known  substance.  If, 
for  example,  gravitation  should  suddenly  cease,  the  whole  sun 
would  expand  into  a  nebula  filling  the  universe.  Such  a  thing  as 
this  of  course  will  never  happen,  yet  the  picture  of  such  an  ex- 
plosion enables  us  to  realize  what  dreadful  compression  and  im- 
prisonment matter  is  subjected  to  in  the  sun's  interior. 

This  imprisoned  matter  is  really  gaseous,  and  would  expand 
into  a  nebula  if  the  pressure  were  relieved;  but  in  confinement 
it  has  the  property  of  a  solid,  owing  to  the  tremendous  pressure 
at  a  temperature  of  millions  of  degrees.  See  concluded  that  at 
the  surface  of  the  sun  the  temperature  lies  between  6,000  and 
12,000  degrees  centigrade;  and  that  deeper  down  it  mounts  up 
enormously,  according  to  laws  which  he  has  worked  out,  and  at 
the  center  probably  lies  between  10,000,000  and  100,000,000 
degrees,  on  the  same  scale  of  temperature. 

Now  in  dealing  with  the  interior  constitution  of  the  earth 
Lord  Kelvin  and  Sir  George  Darwin  found  our  globe  to  be  a  solid 
of  about  the  rigidity  of  steel.  In  other  words  our  globe  is  about 
as  hard  as  a  steel  globe  of  the  same  size  would  be  if  the  parts  of 
it  be  imagined  to  be  devoid  of  the  power  of  gravity.  But  gravi- 
tation exists,  and  it  is  in  fact  the  pressure  under  gravity  which 
makes  the  earth  so  highly  rigid  —  the  imprisoned  matter  may  be 
molten  or  even  gaseous,  and  yet  so  confined  that  it  is  not  free  to 


94  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

circulate,  but  actually  made  to  act  as  a  rigid  solid.  By  careful 
mathematical  calculation  See  proves  that  the  earth  has  a  rigidity 
nearly  as  great  as  nickel  steel  used  in  the  armor  plate  of  our  battle- 
ships. 

The  nickel  steel  of  moderate  grade  has  a  rigidity  of  about  a 
million  atmospheres.  The  modern  vanadium  steel  is  said  to  be 
even  more  rigid,  but  we  need  not  extend  the  comparison.  It  suf- 
fices to  say  that  by  considering  the  layers  of  which  the  earth  is 
made  up,  and  the  pressure  in  each  layer,  See  finds  for  the  earth 
an  average  rigidity  approaching  that  of  nickel  steel.  This  result 
confirms  the  conclusion  of  Lord  Kelvin  and  Sir  George  Darwin, 
but  See's  reasoning  is  much  simpler  than  theirs.  In  other  words, 
the  rigidity  of  the  earth  is  due  to  the  pressure  which  makes  the 
matter  behave  as  a  solid;  and  by  the  theory  of  Professor  See  we 
may  calculate  the  rigidity  of  any  layer  in  the  globe.  He  finds 
that  the  rigidity  at  the  surface  is  equal  to  that  of  common  granite, 
which  is  about  one- fourth  that  of  steel;  while  at  the  center  the 
rigidity  is  three  times  that  of  armor  plate  or  nickel  steel. 

One  very  remarkable  thing  about  See's  process  for  dealing 
with  the  rigidity  of  the  earth  is  the  generality  of  the  method, 
which  makes  it  applicable  also  to  the  other  planets  and  the  sun; 
whereas  the  methods  of  Lord  Kelvin  and  Darwin  apply  only  to 
the  earth,  and  cannot  be  applied  to  the  planets,  sun  or  fixed  stars. 
Thus  See's  method  is  one  of  entire  generality,  like  the  law  of  New- 
tonian gravitation,  whereas  the  method  of  Kelvin  and  Darwin 
applies  only  to  the  earth,  and  is  thus  extremely  special.  It  may 
be  said  therefore  that  See  generalized  the  law  of  rigidity,  some- 
what as  Newton  did  the  law  of  gravitation.  For  before  Newton's 
work  of  1685,  Dr.  Hooke  had  proved  the  law  of  gravity  for  the 
simple  case  of  circular  motion;  but  Newton  proved  it  also  for  the 
ellipse,  parabola  and  hyperbola,  and  thus  generalized  it  for  all  the 
orbits  described  by  the  heavenly  bodies. 

Applying  these  methods  of  investigation  to  the  sun,  See  found 
that  the  average  rigidity  of  that  globe  is  over  2,000  times  that  of 
nickel  steel  used  in  armor  plate.  Surely  a  wonderful  result!  Prior 


Scale  showing  Rigidity 

of  Various  substances  „ 

expressed  in  thousands 

of  Atmospheres. 


of  Rigidity  I  "  "  260  OOO  Atmospheres 
divisions  -     Rigidity  of  Nickel  Steel. 


Outer  Tenth  of  the  Sun's  Radius,  on  larger  Scale. 

Rigidity  In  millions  of  Atmospheres,  so 

that  1  ^'  Rigidity  of  Nickel  Steel. 

Temperature  In  millions  of  Degrees  C. 

Density  10  fold.  Water  =  I. 

T 


I        .5        .6       .7       .8       .9     I. 

Seate  o^R^rMHy  tfL'-^y^JO  000  Atm?sph«r  e<v 
gidity  or  Nickel  Stie'l.   ' 


The  Sun: 

Rigidity  or  Pressure  in  Billions  of  Atmospheres.  I    -,'  Rigidity 
I  000  times  that  of  Nickel  Steel  used  in  Armor  Plate. 

Density  on  usual  Scale.  Water  =-l. 
Temperature  Scale  I  d^   3  Million  Decrees  C. 


Mercury: 

Scale  of  Rigidity  I  c"v"  10  000  Atmospheres. 
Rigidity  due  to  Pressure  is  small,  but 
Planet  may  be  a  mas;  of  Solid  Rock. 


Scale  of  Rigidity  I     Si  10  OOO  Atmospheres 


Scale  of  Rigidity  I  "Si  IO  000  OOO  Atmospheres 
Scale  of  Temperature  I  diT'40000C. 


i\ 


VSfc 


\ 


le  of  Rigidity  I  "i1"-  2  OOO  000  Atmospheres. 

Scale  of  Temperature  I  **-'  10  OOO  C. 
le  of  Density  for  all  the  Planets,  Water  =  |. 


F  Rigidity  \~=-  3  000  000  Atmo.phe 
Scale  of  Temperature  I  *=£•  10  OOO  C. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  95 

to  See's  work  of  1904-6,  many  astronomers  had  believed  that  the 
currents  noticed  at  the  surface  of  the  sun  extend  to  great  depths, 
and  even  to  the  very  center.  This  was  just  like  the  geologists 
believing  that  currents  circulate  deep  down  in  the  earth,  which 
See  proved  to  be  quite  impossible.  In  the  same  way  he  showed 
that  circulation  at  any  considerable  depth  in  the  sun  could  not 
take  place,  because  of  the  enormous  pressure  and  great  effective 
rigidity  of  the  matter.  At  a  depth  of  one-tenth  of  the  sun's  radius 
the  rigidity  is  already  twenty-two  times  that  of  nickel  steel,  and 
hence  See  argues  that  all  circulation  in  the  sun  is  confined  to  a 
thin  layer  near  the  surface,  while  the  great  interior  globe  is  quies- 
cent and  hundreds  and  thousands  of  times  more  rigid  than  armor 
plate. 

These  profound  and  original  investigations  give  us  new  ideas 
in  science,  and  have  revolutionized  many  of  the  old  theories. 
Naturally  such  advancement  could  only  come  from  a  bold  and 
daring  leader,  who  had  the  courage  to  lead  the  way  to  truth,  with- 
out regard  to  traditional  opinion.  This  power  of  leadership  is  a 
striking  characteristic  of  See.  He  is  at  home  in  pioneer  research, 
and  shows  the  same  courage  and  independence  of  mediocre  opinion 
that  enabled  Archimedes  and  Galileo  to  win  victories  in  past 
centuries.  And  just  as  they  triumphed  over  the  jealous  opposi- 
tion of  ignorance  and  medievalism,  so  also  See  has  blazed  a  sim- 
ilar new  and  luminous  path  for  progress  throughout  coming  ages. 

Galileo's  opponents  often  could  not  refute  his  arguments, 
as  when  he  pointed  to  Jupiter's  satellites  as  verifying  his  theories; 
and  in  this  perplexity  they  could  do  nothing  but  refuse  to  look 
through  the  telescope,  lest  they  be  convinced.  They  did  not  want 
to  know  the  truth.  There  are  still  persons  of  that  kind  in  the 
world,  and  no  doubt  always  will  be. 

One  form  of  the  contemptible  opposition  to  Galileo  may  be 
recorded  here.  When  his  opponents  knew  they  were  beaten,  and 
could  no  longer  make  an  honest  argument  against  the  progress  of 
truth,  they  tried  to  get  learned  societies  arrayed  against  him. 
Thus  it  is  said  that  the  Academy  of  Cortona  unanimously  resolved 


96  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

that  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  did  not  exist.  Yet  Galileo  would 
have  shown  them  to  anyone  who  wished  to  look  through  the  newly 
invented  telescope.  So  also  there  are  now  people  of  this  type 
who  have  fought  the  progress  of  See's  discoveries  till  they  found 
out  the  futility  of  their  efforts.  Then  they  gave  up  the  fight,  and 
now  probably  they  would  not  admit  that  they  ever  opposed  the 
progress  of  his  discoveries,  which  are  in  every  respect  comparable 
to  those  of  Galileo  and  Archimedes. 

The  modern  geometer  who  can  devise  a  method  for  inves- 
tigating the  physical  properties  of  matter  confined  under  tremen- 
dous pressure  and  enormously  high  temperature,  in  the  deep 
interior  of  the  sun  and  planets,  where  no  instrument  or  direct 
observation  can  ever  aid  us,  evidently  is  in  the  same  class  with 
the  ancient  mathematician  who  could  invent  burning  mirrors, 
and  the  principle  of  floating  bodies,  as  well  as  deduce  the  proper- 
ties of  curves  and  spirals.  And  hence  we  have  pointed  out  the 
parallel  between  the  labors  of  the  celebrated  geometer  of  Syracuse 
and  the  famous  American  geometer  whose  discoveries  have  added 
so  much  new  luster  to  the  American  name. 


RELIEF  MAP  OF  THE  TERRESTRIAL  GLOBE. 

Illustrating  the  relations  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  which  has  uplifted  great  walls    along  the  borders 
of  the  Continents,  by  the  expulsion  of  lava  from  beneath  the  ocean  and  its  injection   under  the  land. 
This  impressive  view  of  the  Earth  shows  at  a  glance  that  the  mountains  have  been  formed  by  the  Sea. 
From  Frye's  Complete  Geography,  by  permission  of  Ginn  &  Co.,  Puolishers. 


CHAPTER  X. 
1906-1908. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  NEW  THEORY  OF  EARTHQUAKES.* 
By  T.  J.  J.  SEE 

AMONG  all  the  varied  natural  phenomena  witnessed  upon 
our  planet  nothing  so  excites  the  dread  and  terror  of  man- 
kind as  an  earthquake,  which  is  at  once  violent  and  so 
sudden  and  unexpected  as  to  alarm  the  calmest  mind.  That  this 
direful  feeling  has  prevailed  in  all  ages  we  are  amply  assured  by 
the  comparisons  made  in  the  Bible  and  other  venerable  works  of 
antiquity,  which  make  known  the  consternation  inspired  among 
the  people  by  these  terrible  natural  commotions.  Thus  we  read 
in  history  that  some  of  the  Emperors  of  Rome,  especially  Trajan 
and  Hadrian,  while  witnessing  the  chariot  races  at  Antioch  and 
other  places,  found  it  advisable  to  withdraw  from  the  amphi- 
theatre and  retire  into  the  open  spaces,  in  order  to  avoid  the  danger 
of  falling  walls.  And  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome  abounds 
in  stories  of  the  religious  anxiety  excited  among  the  people  by 
earthquakes,  which  were  believed  to  be  signs  of  evil  omen,  sent 
from  the  infernal  and  marine  divinities,  but  especially  Poseidon, 
"the  Earth-shaker/'  to  whom  so  many  temples  were  dedicated  on 
isthmuses,  promontories  and  other  regions  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  sea. 

When  a  great  earthquake  took  place,  and  was  followed  by 
a  series  of  after-shocks,  impressively  recalling  both  the  terror  and 
the  disaster  of  the  principal  disturbance,  which  may  have  laid 
waste  cities  and  devastated  whole  countries,  it  is  not  wonderful 
that  the  people  who  had  sustained  such  losses  were  troubled  and 
wrought  up  to  a  high  pitch  of  excitement.  In  such  emergencies 

*  Address  delivered  at  the  University  of  Missouri,  May  30,  1907,  being  Lec- 
ture No.  2  of  a  general  course  in  Natural  Philosophy.  Reprinted  from  Popular 
Astronomy  No.  154,  April,  1908. 


98  BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY    AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

the  god  Poseidon  above  all  others*  called  forth  the  veneration  of 
the  people;  and  he  was  generally  held  to  be  the  most  important 
of  the  infernal  and  marine  divinities,  because  he  held  both  the 
power  of  earthquakes  and  of  those  dreadful  inundations  by  the 
sea,  which  were  so  often  noticed  to  accompany  violent  seismic 
disturbances  in  the  Peloponnesus  and  elsewhere. 

The  wide-spread  alarm  and  religious  affliction  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Peloponnesus  after  the  great  Achaian  earthquake  of 
373  B.  C.  is  especially  remarked  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  other 
historians.  At  the  same  time  it  is  stated  that  the  natural  philo- 
sophers explain  these  phenomena  by  natural  and  necessary  causes, 
rather  than  by  the  wrath  of  the  gods.  But  during  the  ages  of 
Greek  Polytheism,  and  even  during  the  earlier  centuries  of  Christi- 
anity, such  disasters  were  always  believed  by  the  multitude  to  be  a 
sign  of  the  Divine  displeasure.  Sometimes  they  were  attributed 
to  the  wickedness  of  an  emperor,  or  to  the  sins  of  factional  oppo- 
nents; the  heathens  charging  them  upon  the  Christians  and  the 
Christians  laying  them  to  the  idolatrous  conduct  of  the  heathens. 

In  view  of  the  undeveloped  state  of  Science  in  former  times 
a  modern  student  can  easily  understand  the  great  perplexity  of 
the  ancients,  in  the  midst  of  such  terrible  calamities.  The  Senate 
of  Rome  on  more  than  one  occasion  did  what  it  could  to  alleviate 
the  sufferings  of  the  people,  which  were  partly  real  and  partly 
imaginary.  We  find  several  accounts  of  the  sending  of  formal 
embassies  for  the  offering  of  public  sacrifices  to  the  angry  divinities. 
If  these  sacrifices  did  not  quiet  the  agitating  forces  of  nature,  they 
at  least  calmed  the  people  and  thus  allayed  their  imaginary  afflic- 
tions and  were  therefore  of  service  to  the  State. 

It  is  well  known  that  both  the  ablest  statesmen  and  generals 
of  antiquity  regarded  earthquakes  as  proceeding  from  natural 
causes;  and  I  have  recently  been  at  some  pains  to  translate  the 
theories  held  by  Aristotle  and  other  leading  Greek  philosophers. 

"  Once  when  an  earthquake  shook  the  ground  where  a  Spartan  army 
was  encamped,  the  whole  army  sang  a  hymn  to  Poseidon." 

— Article  Poseidon,  Encycl.  Britannica,  9th  edition. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  99 

Aristotle  gives  the  views  of  those  who  preceded  him,  and  his  own 
theory  was  generally  adopted  by  his  successors.  We  may  infer 
this  by  the  way  in  which  it  was  followed  by  such  writers  as  Strabo 
and  Pliny. 

Aristotle  placed  his  discussion  of  earthquakes  in  the  book  on 
Meteorology,  because  he  ascribed  the  shaking  of  the  earth  to  vapor 
confined  within  the  crust,  and  agitating  to  effect  an  escape,  so  as 
to  diffuse  itself  in  the  atmosphere.  He  recognized  the  high  inter- 
nal temperature  of  the  earth  from  the  warm  springs  observed  to 
break  forth  in  many  places,  and  from  the  eruptions  of  volcanoes 
which  he  had  witnessed  in  the  Aeolian  Islands  and  elsewhere. 
Both  he  and  Strabo  mention  eruptions  occuring  in  the  bed  of  the 
sea,  and  they  also  notice  the  great  seismic  sea  waves  which  fre- 
quently accompany  violent  earthquakes  originating  near  the  sea 
shores. 

Aristotle  and  Pliny  distinctly  remark  that  earthquakes  are 
especially  prevalent  in  maritime  districts;  and  they  attribute  this 
phenomenon  to  submarine  passages,  conceived  as  deep  conduits, 
by  which  air  and  water  obtain  access  to  the  heated  matter  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth.  They  held  that  earthquakes  are  due  to  the 
agitation  of  imprisoned  vapors  even  when  none  of  it  escapes  to 
the  surface,  but  all  remains  hidden  beneath  the  earth's  crust.  That 
the  cause  is  the  same  when  a  volcanic  outbreak  occurs  and  when 
only  an  earthquake  takes  place  without  eruption,  Aristotle  affirm- 
ed on  the  ground  of  the  similarity  of  the  movement  in  the  two  cases. 

To  an  unbiased  naturalist  like  Aristotle  it  did  not  seem  strange 
that  in  the  one  case  the  vapor  should  break  through  and  diffuse 
itself  in  the  atmosphere,  while  in  the  other  it  continued  to  agitate 
till  movements  occurred  which  gave  more  space  beneath  the  earth's 
crust,  and  was  then  followed  by  a  cessation  of  the  shocks.  Aris- 
totle's view  was  thus  consistent  with  Newton's  rule  of  philosophy, 
that  the  same  effects  are  to  be  ascribed  as  far  as  possible  to  the 
same  causes;  and  in  marked  contrast  with  the  modern  method  of 
dividing  earthquakes  into  two  arbitrary  classes,  volcanic  and 
tectonic,  according  as  they  are  accompanied  by  eruption,  or  only 


100         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY    AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

by  a  surface  dislocation  of  the  earth's  crust  along  a  fault 
line. 

While  Aristotle's  theory  is  imperfect  in  many  respects,  the 
general  ideas  underlying  it  are  essentially  sound;  and  in  reading 
this  work  written  more  than  twenty- two  centuries  ago,  one  cannot 
but  be  impressed  both  by  his  penetration  into  the  nature  of  things, 
and  by  the  vast  extent  of  his  knowledge.  With  characteristic 
independence  he  refused  to  accept  the  views  of  his  predecessors, 
but  examined  de  now  all  questions  upon  their  merits,  so  far  as  the 
existing  state  of  Science  would  permit.  He  is  thus  led  to  many 
interesting  remarks,  and  the  criticisms  which  he  offers  are  often 
as  good  as  can  be  made  to-day. 

In  view  of  the  great  afflictions  due  to  earthquakes  suffered 
by  so  many  countries  from  the  earliest  ages,  it  seems  to  the  modern 
student  truly  remarkable  that  our  understanding  of  the  cause  of 
these  disturbances  has  remained  so  unsatisfactory.  Whether  we 
read  in  Strabo  or  Pliny  that  a  great  earthquake  in  Syria  had  laid 
waste  twelve  cities  in  a  single  night,  or  turn  to  the  current  books 
and  press  dispatches,  which  tell  of  widespread  devastation  by 
modern  earthquakes,  we  are  left  equally  in  the  dark  as  to  the  cause 
of  these  calamities.  In  current  discussions  we  often  see  it  stated 
that  earthquakes  may  occur  anywhere,  and  that  no  place  is  free 
from  the  dreadful  ravages  which  they  inflict  upon  large  portions 
of  mankind.  This  statement  obviously  is  not  correct,  yet  it  shows 
that  heretofore  Science  has  not  reached  the  true  laws  of  these  phe- 
nomena. 

The  main  object  of  Science  is  the  illumination  of  the  human 
mind,  and  much  of  it  scarcely  admits  of  application  to  practical 
affairs,  so  as  to  alleviate  human  suffering;  but  if  we  had  a  true 
science  of  earthquakes  it  ought  to  be  indeed  of  the  highest  humane 
as  well  as  scientific  interest.  Shall  our  cities  continue  to  be  de- 
vastated and  rebuilt  without  an  understanding  of  the  disturbing 
cause?  If  so,  what  advance  has  our  boasted  civilization  made  over 
that  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans?  Nay,  shall  we  not  know  even 
the  regions  especially  afflicted  by  earthquakes?  We  could  indeed 


MOUNT  PELEE. 

The  Burning  Cloud  of  December  6,  1902,  seen  from  the  sea.     A  most  impressive 
illustration  of  the  vast  quantities  of  steam  emitted  from  volcanoes. 


THE  SHATTERED  OBELISK  OF  MOUNT  PELEE. 

Photographed  by  Professor  Angelo  Heilprin.  This  vast  mass  of  granite  rock 
1,000  feet  high  and  500  feet  in  diameter,  was  ejected  from  the  volcano  with  terrific 
force,  but  caught  and  held  fast  in  the  orifice,  till  at  length  it  crumbled  to  pieces.  If 
steam  can  eject  such  a  massive  column,  there  is  no  mountain  uplift  which  it  is 
incapable  of  producing. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  101 

have  learned  this  from  the  study  of  Aristotle;  but  in  our  time  we 
claim,  though  not  always  justly,  to  have  improved  on  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  ancients.  If  we  do  not  find  out  the  regions  especially 
subject  to  eartquakes,  so  as  to  forewarn  the  people  as  to  what  kind 
of  houses  to  build  and  how  to  protect  their  cities  from  fire  in  the 
case  of  an  earthquake,  of  what  practical  use  is  Science  to  the  com- 
munity? Some  branches  of  Science  might  be  very  excellent  indeed 
and  still  be  of  no  use  to  the  multitude  of  people;  yet  this  obviously 
is  not  true  of  a  science  which  deals  with  earthquakes  imperiling 
the  lives  and  property  of  thousands  of  our  fellow  citizens. 

We  must  confess  that  heretofore  this  knowledge  of  the  cause 
of  earthquakes  has  not  been  forthcoming.  But  as  a  physicist 
believing  in  the  existence  of  natural  laws,  which,  if  known,  would 
be  of  the  greatest  service  to  mankind  both  now  and  throughout 
coming  ages,  I  am  going  to  treat  of  earthquakes  and  kindred 
phenomenon  connected  with  the  physics  of  the  earth.  The  theory 
of  which  I  shall  treat  has  been  recently  presented  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  in  Philadelphia,  and  I  take  this  occasion  to 
acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  this  illustrious  society  for  the 
publication  of  lengthy  arguments  which  can  be  mentioned  here 
only  with  the  utmost  brevity.* 

At  the  time  of  the  great  earthquake  at  San  Francisco,  I  had 
just  finished  the  researches  on  the  Physical  Constitution  of  the 
Heavenly  Bodies  which  have  been  recently  published  in  the  Astro- 
nomische  Nachrichten;  and  as  the  explanations  of  the  earthquake 

*  1.  The  Cause  of  Earthquakes,  Mountain  Formation  and  Kindred  Phe- 
nomena connected  with  the  Physics  of  the  Earth.  Proc.  Am.  Philos.  Society,  1906, 
issued  March,  1907. 

2.  On  the  Temperature,  Secular  Cooling  and  Contraction  of  the  Earth  and 
on  the  Theory  of  Earthquakes  held  by  the  Ancients.    Proc.  Am.Philos.  Society, 
1907. 

3.  The  New  Theory  of  Earthquakes  and  Mountain  Formation  as  illustrated 
by  Processes  now  at  work  in  the  Depths  of  the  Sea.    Proc.  Am.  Philos.  Society, 
1907,  issued  in  March,  1908. 

[4.  Further  Researches  on  the  Physics  of  the  Earth,  and  especially  on  the 
Folding  of  Mountain  Ranges  and  the  Uplift  of  Plateaus  and  Continents  pro- 
duced by  movements  of  Lava  beneath  the  Crust  arising  from  the  secular 
leakage  of  the  Ocean  Bottoms,  Proc.  Am.  Philos.  Soc.,  No.  189,  Sept.,  1908.] 


102         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

then  made  public  by  men  of  science  did  not  seem  to  me  to  be  well 
founded,  I  temporarily  laid  aside  astronomical  work  in  order  to 
take  up  this  problem  of  the  Physics  of  the  Earth.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  the  papers  which  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  did  me  the  honor  to  publish  have  awakened  a  lively  inter- 
est in  the  scientific  world ;  and  whilst  one  can  scarcely  hope  that 
every  difficulty  has  been  overcome,  it  is  evident  that  at  least  a 
good  foundation  has  been  laid  for  the  true  theory  of  earthquakes, 
mountain  formation  and  kindred  phenomena  connected  with  the 
physics  of  the  globe. 

Since  the  processes  involved  in  earthquakes  are  forever  hidden 
from  mortal  view,  the  discovery  of  the  cause  involved  naturally 
has  been  very  difficult.  But  as  the  effects  would  become  most 
sensible  in  earthquakes  of  the  world-shaking  class,  it  was  felt  at 
the  outset  that  the  investigation  should  be  restricted  to  the  study 
of  these  great  phenomena.  If  the  study  of  the  greatest  earth- 
quakes enabled  us  to  reach  the  underlying  cause,  the  inquiry  could 
later  be  made  to  include  the  smaller  disturbances,  many  of  which 
are  after-shocks  of  the  great  earthquakes. 

In  speaking  of  earthquakes  therefore  we  shall  have  in  mind 
primarily  earthquakes  of  the  world-shaking  class.  If  we  had 
attempted  to  study  all  earthquakes  together,  the  results  could 
only  have  been  hopeless  confusion;  for  we  should  have  been  un- 
able to  discover  the  processes  even  of  the  greatest  earthquakes. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  results  of  these  inquiries  is  the 
conclusion  that  the  earth  is  not  shrinking,  as  commonly  held  in 
all  the  physical  sciences  for  the  past  eighty  years;  but  that  it  may 
indeed  be  slightly  expanding.  Another  is  that  there  is  a  pro- 
gressive secular  desiccation  of  the  oceans,  which  are  becoming 
narrower  and  also  deeper  in  many  places,  so  that  as  the  world 
grows  older  the  intensity  of  the  earthquakes  is  slowly  increasing, 
not  diminishing.  But  obviously  there  has  been  no  sensible  change 
within  the  historical  period. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  state  the  cause  of  earthquakes  and 
related  phenomena,  and  after  so  doing  shall  resume  the  considera- 


a.     Mountain  formation  just  beginning. 


b.     Mountain  formation  in  the  middle  stages. 


c.     Mountain  formation  in  the  later  stages. 


d.     New  range  rising  fi;om*  th£  sea".  ' 


DIAGRAMS  ILLUSTRATING  THE  SUCCESSIVE  STAGES  IN  THE  PROCESS 

OF  MOUNTAIN  FORMATION,  BY  THE  EXPULSION  OF  LAVA  FRO  M 

BENEATH  THE  SEA  AND  ITS  INJECTION  UNDER  THE  LAND. 


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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  103 

tion  of  the  other  questions  connected  with  the  physics  of  the 
globe. 

1.  It  is  shown  that  the  principal  cause  of  world-shaking 
earthquakes  is  the  secular  leakage  of  the  ocean  bottoms,  which 
produces  steam  beneath  the  earth's  crust.    When  the  pressure 
has  sufficiently  accumulated  the  movement  of  the  underlying 
molten  rock  shakes  the  earth,  lays  waste  cities  and  devastates  whole 
countries.    Much  steam  is  formed  under  the  ocean,  but  scarcely 
any  under  the  land,  and  hence  the  usual  process  of  movement 
consists  in  the  expulsion  of  lava  from  beneath  the  sea,  and  the 
pushing  of  it  under  the  land.    The  crust  is  thus  pushed  up  and 
broken  along  the  seashore,  and  thus  forms  mountains  parallel  to 
the  coast. 

2.  The  mountain  systems  of  the  world  have  been  formed 
by  this  expulsion  of  lava  from  under  the  sea,  and  not  at  all  by  the 
shrinkage  of  the  globe.    Taking  account  of  the  mere  lay  of  the 
mountains  relatively  to  the  sea,  it  is  proved  by  the  theory  of  prob- 
ability that  the  chances  are  at  least  a  decillion  decillions  to  one 
that  they  were  formed  so  exactly  parallel  to  the  coast  by  a  true 
physical  cause  depending  on  the  oceans.    Moreover  there  are  other 
phenomena  to  be  considered  of  such  weight  that  it  becomes  an 
absolute  certainty  that  the  mountains  are  formed  by  the  sea. 

3.  The  coast  frequently  is  noticed  to  be  upheaved  during 
earthquakes,  and  the  adjacent  sea  bottom  is  shown  to  sink,  from 
the  way  in  which  the  water  retires  before  the  inrush  of  the  accom- 
panying seismic  sea  wave.    The  sea  does  not  withdraw  from  the 
land  by  the  violence  of  the  agitation  of  the  ground  during  the 
earthquake,  but  slowly  drains  off  afterwards,  as  in  the  ebbing  of 
a  tide,  only  the  withdrawal  is  more  rapid  in  the  case  of  the  move- 
ment before  the  sea  wave;  and  as  the  sea  level  near  the  shore  is 
thus  lowered  sometimes  by  forty  or  fifty  feet,  so  that  vessels  at 
anchor  in  seven  fathoms  of  water  are  left  resting  on  the  ground, 
it  follows  that  the  sea  bottom  sinks  some  distance  from  the  shore, 
and  the  water  rushes  in  from  all  sides  to  fill  up  the  depression. 
When  the  currents  meet  at  the  center  the  water  is  forced  up  into 


104         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

a  corresponding  elevation,  above  the  normal  sea  level,  and  the 
collapse  of  this  aqueous  ridge  sends  a  great  wave  ashore,  to  add 
to  the  horror  of  the  earthquake. 

4.  If,  then,  the  sea  bottom  frequently  sinks  and  the  coast  is 
simultaneously  upraised,  it  follows  that  lava  is  expelled  from  under 
the  sea  and  pushed  under  the  land.    For  in  the  regular  order  of 
nature  the  sea  bottom  could  not  sink  unless  it  was  in  some  way 
undermined,  and  the  coast  could  not  be  uplifted  unless  something 
was  pushed  under  it;  and  as  one  sinks  while  the  other  rises  it 
follows  that  lava  is  expelled  from  under  the  sea  and  pushed  under 
the  land.    Not  only  is  this  process  now  going  on  along  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  and  elsewhere,  as  repeatedly  observed 
within  historical  times,  but  we  may  also  affirm  that  the  long  con- 
tinuation of  this  undermining  in  the  past  has  sunk  the  sea  bottom 
down  into  a  deep  trough  and  at  the  same  time  pushed  such  vast 
quantities  of  lava  under  the  adjacent  mountains  that  the  lofty 
peaks  in  the  Andes  with  snow-capped  summits  now  seem  to  near 
the  stars.    There  is  thus  direct  continuity  between  the  small 
movements  observed  within  the  historical  period  and  the  vastly 
greater  effect  of  these  forces  operating  over  immense  periods  of 
time. 

5.  The  process  by  which  mountains  and  deep  ocean  troughs 
are  formed  is  even  better,  illustrated  in  the  Aleutian  and  Kurile 
Islands,  where  the  mountains  under  water  are  just  rising  out  of 
the  sea  and  the  adjacent  ocean  trench  is  very  narrow,  and  runs 
exactly  parallel  to  them  for  great  distances  (see  Manual  of  Tides, 
Coast  Survey  Reports,  1900,  Part  IV,  A,  by  Rollin  A.  Harris, 
including  maps  of  the  depths  of  the  ocean).    This  chain  is  also 
one  of  the  worst  earthquake  belts  in  the  world,  and  many  of  the 
mountains  have  burst  open  and  become  volcanoes.    The  earth- 
quakes are  frquently  accompanied  by  great  seismic  sea  waves, 
showing  that  the  bed  of  the  ocean  sinks  after  lava  has  been  ex- 
pelled from  under  it  in  the  formation  of  mountains.     If  the  pro- 
cess thus  made  out  is  a  true  law  of  nature,  it  follows  that  all  the 
great  mountain  chains  of  the  globe  were  formed  by  this  same  pro- 


RELIEF  MAP  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

From  Frye's  Complete  Geography,  by  permission  of  Ginn  &  Co.,  Publishers.  Illustrating  the 
New  Theory  that  the  Mountains  were  formed  by  the  oceans,  and  thus  run  parallel  to  the  Sea  Coast,  as 
in  the  typical  case  of  the  Andes.  It  was  this  vast  wall  along  the  Western  sea-board  of  South  America 
and  the  earthquakes  afflicting  that  region  that  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  cause  of  Earthquakes  and 
Mountain  Formation  in  1906.  The  foundations  of  the  New  Science  of  Geogony  were  thus  laid  by 

Professor  See  in  1906. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  105 

cess,  though  in  some  cases  the  recession  of  the  sea  coast  due  to  the 
movement  of  the  crust  by  earthquakes,  has  changed  the  original 
shapes  of  the  troughs,  and  consequently  can  now  be  made  out  only 
by  careful  investigation. 

6.  Our  present  knowledge  of  the  earth's  surface  does  not  en- 
able us  to  decide  just  what  movement  of  the  land  has  taken  place 
in  each  case,  but  the  parallelism  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea  coast 
is  sufficiently  remarkable  to  attract  universal  attention.    Here- 
tofore the  cause  of  this  phenomenon  has  been  quite  obscure,  and 
some  have  inferred  that  it  is  a  "coincidence  which  is  only  in  part 
casual."     It  is  shown,  however,  as  already  remarked,  that  the 
chances  are  at  least  a  decillion  decillions  to  one  that  the  parallelism 
depends  on  a  true  physical  cause  connected  with  the  sea.     It  is 
absolutely  unthinkable  that  the  Pacific  Ocean  could  be  so  effective- 
ly walled  in  by  great  mountain  chains  all  around,  unless  the  moun- 
tains were  formed  about  the  Ocean  itself,  by  the  expulsion  of  lava, 
in  the  way  we  have  described. 

7.  In  1899,  September  3-20,  a  terrible  earthquake  took  place 
at  Yakutat  Bay,  Alaska,  during  which  the  coast  was  elevated  for 
more  than  a  hundred  miles,  and  at  the  maximum  the  elevation 
amounted  to  forty-seven  and  one-third  feet.    Elevations  of  from 
seven  to  twenty  feet  were  common,  while  small  depressions  also 
occurred  in  a  few  places.    This  case  was  carefully  investigated  by 
Professor  R.  S.  Tarr,  of  Cornell  University,  and  Mr.  Lawrence 
Martin,  of  the  National  Geographical  Society;  and  their  memoir 
in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  Vol.  17,  May, 
1906,  is  illustrated  by  photographs  of  the  most  convincing  kind, 
showing  the  uplifted  coasts,  with  barnacles  still  adhering  to  the 
rocks.    Their  investigation  is  classic  and  absolutely  conclusive. 
In  the  confused  state  of  scientific  opinion  heretofore  prevailing, 
geologists  could  deny  the  bodily  uplift  of  the  solid  land;  but  after 
the  publication  of  this  memoir,  they  could  no  longer  legitimately 
maintain  this  attitude.    And  if  one  instance  of  elevation  by  a 
powerful  earthquake  could  be  clearly  established,  it  naturally 
followed  that  others  could  arise  from  similar  causes.    Last  year 


106         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT   OF  THE 

the  earthquake  at  Valparaiso,  August  16,  1906,  is  said  to  have 
raised  the  Chilian  coast  about  ten  feet;  and  many  similar  move- 
ments at  other  places  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  can  be 
certainly  established. 

8.  The  fact  that  no  active  volcano  exists  over  about  one 
hundred  miles  from  the  sea  or  other  large  body  of  water,  and  the 
further  fact  that  according  to  Geikie  999  in  1,000  parts  of  the 
escaping  vapor  is  steam,  shows  the  dependence  of  volcanoes  on 
the  sea.    The  activity  of  one  hundred  and  five  volcanoes  in  the 
Andes  within  historical  time  shows  that  volcanoes  are  nothing  but 
ordinary  mountains  broken  through  by  the  pressure  of  subterra- 
nean steam.    Hence  it  follows  that  the  same  forces  which  raise 
the  mountain  chains  and  peaks  also  cause  the  eruption  of  some 
of  them. 

9.  The  vapor  of  steam  and  no  other  is  the  cause  of  both 
mountain  building  and  of  volcanic  outbreaks;  for  mountain  build- 
ing always  takes  place  in  or  near  the  sea,  and  volcanoes  through- 
out the  world  develop  near  the  center  of  the  earthquake  belts. 
Volcanoes  emit  chiefly  vapor  of  stream,  and  eruptions  generally 
cease  when  the  vapor  has  escaped  into  the  atmosphere.    Thus 
earthquakes,  volcanoes,  mountain  formation,   and  seismic  sea 
waves  are  all  due  to  a  common  cause. 

10.  As  the  expulsion  of  lava  from  under  the  sea  causes  the 
earthquakes  and  seismic  sea  waves,  it  follows  also  that  all  moun- 
tains are  underlaid  with  pumice  of  various  degrees  of  density, 
which  is  simply  molten  rock  inflated  with  stream  and  then  cooled 
and  dried.    The  expulsion  of  such  vast  quantities  of  pumice  from 
volcanoes  shows  that  there  must  be  a  process  for  its  abundant 
manufacture  in  nature,  and  that  it  must  have  been  formed  under 
all  mountains  when  they  were  originally  upheaved.    The  preva- 
lence of  pumice  in  volcanic  regions  is  therefore  accounted  for  in  a 
perfectly  simple  manner.    The  grinding  up  of  pumice  makes 
volcanic  ashes,  and  hence  arise  the  vast  quantities  of  this  dust 
blown  out  of  many  volcanoes.  Pumice  and  its  disintegrated  prod- 
uct in  the  form  of  ashes,  result   from  the   diminished  pressure 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  107 

exerted  on  steam  saturated  lava,  when  it  is  pushed  under  the 
mountains  where  the  crust  is  broken,  and  increased  expansion  of 
the  molten  rock  takes  place. 

11.  The  formation  of  islands  in  the  sea  and  of  plateaus  on 
land,  is  to  be  explained  by  elevation  of  a  portion  of  the  earth's 
crust  by  the  injection  of  lava  beneath.    This  lava  comes  from 
neighboring  areas,  which  are  thus  undermined,  unless  the  partial 
cavity  is  again  filled  up  by  an  additional  supply  of  molten  rock. 
Hence  plateaus  such  as  those  of  Titicaca  and  Tibet  are  closely 
associated  with  the  expulsion  of  lava,  which  originally  caused  the 
uplift  of  the  Andes  and  Himalayas.     In  many  cases  islands  in  the 
sea  have  depressions  near  them,  showing  that  the  sea  bottom  was 
undermined  in  the  elevation  of  the  islands,  and  afterwards  sank 
down  to  secure  stability. 

12.  As  all  mountains  and  plateaus  exhibit  a  feeble  attraction 
when  measured  in  geodetic  operations,  it  follows  that  the  cause 
of  this  phenomenon  is  the  pumice  underlying  these  elevated  por- 
tions of  the  crust,  which  makes  them  attract  as  if  they  were  hollow, 
or  filled  with  caverns.    This  was  noted  by  Bouguer  and  LaCanda- 
mine  in  their  observations  on  Chimborazo  as  early  as  1738. 

13.  When  the  subterranean  pressure  becomes  great  enough 
to  shake  the  earth's  crust,  it  naturally  moves  at  the  nearest  fault 
line,  where  the  rocks  are  broken,  and  the  resistance  is  least,  but  the 
movement  observed  is  the  result,  not  the  cause  of  the  earthquake.     It 
has  been  customary  heretofore  to  explain  earthquakes  by  the 
movement  of  faults,  without  assigning  the  cause  of  the  fault  move- 
ment, or  by  vague  references  to  the  supposed  secular  cooling  of 
the  earth.    Such  procedure  is  altogether  illogical,  for  it  does  not 
account  for  the  origin  of  faults,  nor  even  point  out  the  correct 
cause  of  their  movement. 

14.  If  faults  were  due  to  the  secular  cooling  of  the  earth  they 
ought  to  originate  and  move  in  the  interior  of  continents  as  well 
as  along  the  ocean  shores.    Acre  for  acre  as  much  heat  is  being 
lost  by  Kansas,  or  Sahara,  as  by  any  sea  coast  or  ocean  bed  in  the 
world.    Yet  no  important  movements  occur  inland,  while  the  sea 


108         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

coast  is  repeatedly  shaken.  The  constant  shaking  of  the  Andes 
compared  to  the  general  quiescence  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  shows 
the  effect  of  proximity  to  the  sea,  and  proves  that  the  secular  cool- 
ing of  the  earth  is  not  a  true  cause  of  earthquake  movements. 

15.  In  the  papers  published  by  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  at  Philadelphia  it  is  shown  that  the  effects  of  secular  cool- 
ing are  wholly  inappreciable,  and  that  the  earth  is  not  really  con- 
tracting; but  in  all  probability  slightly  expanding,  owing  to  the 
predominant  effects  of  elevations  of  the  land  by  world-shaking 
earthquakes,  120,000  of  which  have  occurred  since  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  Era.    And  it  is  calculated  that  the  effects  of 
elevation  may  exceed  the  effects  of  contraction  from  ten  to  one 
hundred  times,  so  that  in  all  probability  the  globe  is  really  ex- 
panding. 

16.  It  turns  out  therefore  that  the  doctrine  of  mountain 
formation  based  on  the  theory  of  contraction  and  now  held  for 
some  eighty  years  is  quite  devoid  of  real  foundation.     If  the  earth 
is  not  shrinking  another  cause  must  be  sought  to  account  for  the 
observed  elevations  of  the  crust  as  seen  in  mountain  folds;  and  it 
should  explain  mountain  ranges  in  the  sea  as  well  as  on  the  land. 
The  present  theory  meets  this  severe  test  perfectly,  and  is  beauti- 
fully illustrated  by  the  phenomena  exhibited  near  the  Aleutian 
and  Kurile  Islands.    Here  the  earthquakes  are  raising  islands  and 
at  the  same  time  sinking  down  the  adjacent  sea  bottom,  as  may 
be  confidently  inferred  from  the  accompanying  seismic  sea  waves. 
These  long  narrow  trenches  have  been  dug  out  by  the  expulsion 
process,  and  it  is  still  going  on  at  the  present  time.    No  other 
interpretation  of  the  observed  phenomena  is  really  possible. 

17.  The  whole  plateau  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  has 
been  raised  from  the  sea  in  recent  geological  time.    This  is  shown 
by  the  abundant  beds  of  fossils,  and  by  the  numerous  parallel 
mountain  ranges  nearer  the  Pacific  Coast.    The  San  Joaquin  and 
Sacramento  Valleys  have  been  recently  raised  from  the  sea,  and 
the  great  earthquake  at  San  Francisco,  April  18,  1906,  was  but 
one  of  an  infinite  number  which  have  raised  the  Coast  Range  little 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  109 

by  little  and  finally  lifted  California  above  the  ocean  level.  Earth- 
quakes obviously  will  recur  in  California,  but  no  important  dis- 
turbance is  to  be  expected  at  San  Francisco  for  at  least  a  genera- 
tion. This  is  inferred  from  the  study  of  other  places  similarly 
disturbed  during  the  historical  period,  and  from  the  nature  of  the 
process  of  ocean  leakage,  which  is  very  slow  and  gradual. 

18.  The  cause  of  the  terrible  earthquakes  in  Japan  is  now 
perfectly  clear,  namely,  the  leakage  of  the  deep  sea  just  to  the  east 
of  Nipon,  known  as  the  Tuscarora  Deep.    By  the  expulsion  of 
lava  from  under  this  area  the  whole  island  of  Nipon  has  been  lifted 
above  the  sea,  and  the  process  still  continues  with  increasing 
violence.    The  east  coast  of  Japan  has  risen  considerably  within 
the  historical  period,  and  naturally  a  movement  of  this  kind  con- 
firms the  theory  here  developed. 

19.  The  present  theory  of  mountain  formation  enables  us 
to  account  for  all  the  principal  mountain  ranges  of  the  globe,  and 
the  more  gradual  slopes  which  they  exhibit  towards  the  sea  from 
which  the  lava  has  been  expelled  in  the  process  of  elevation.     In 
the  case  of  islands  the  mountains  run  lengthwise,  right  through 
their  centers  like  veritable  backbones.     In  other  cases  lava  escapes 
under  larger  submarine  areas  which  will  eventually  be  raised  above 
the  sea  and  formed  into  larger  islands  or  continents.    The  princi- 
pal cause  of  the  movement  of  the  earth's  crust  is  everywhere  the 
same,  but  we  do  not  yet  know  the  details  of  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
because  most  of  it  is  under  water,  and  even  that  above  sea  level 
is  very  imperfectly  surveyed. 

20.  As  land  is  raised  above  the  sea  by  earthquakes,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  chief  effect  of  seismic  activity  is  the  formation  of 
more  land.    Since  this  narrows  the  oceans,  and  water  is  also  con- 
stantly sinking  down  into  the  earth,  and  only  a  small  part  of  it 
again  escapes  through  the  vents  of  volcanoes,  it  follows  that  there 
is  a  secular  desiccation  of  the  oceans,  but  the  process  is  excessively 
slow,  and  not  certainly  recognizable  within  the  historical  period. 
Yet  a  portion  of  the  lowering  of  the  strand  line  noticed  in  later 
geological  ages  may  be  due  to  this  cause. 


110         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

21.  In  studying  the  sinking  of  the  sea  bottoms  in  connection 
with  the  expulsion  of  lava  for  the  elevation  of  coasts  and  the  for- 
mation of  mountains,  the  writer  took  up  the  problem  of  the  sink- 
ing of  the  Homeric  City  of  Helike,  after  the  great  earthquake  in 
Achaia,  in  373  B.C.,  which  occurred  during  the  lifetime  of  Aris- 
totle and  Plato.    And  it  was  possible  to  prove  from  historical 
authorities  that  the  subsidence  amounted  to  about  one  hundred 
feet,  which  shows  that  after  that  earthquake  had  pushed  lava 
under  the  mountains  in  Arcadia,  the  bed  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth 
gave  down,  and  carried  the  shore  on  which  Helike  stood  down  with 
it,  so  that,  as  Pausanias  says,  only  the  tops  of  the  trees  about  the 
temple  of  Poseidon  remained  above  the  water.    This  famous 
disaster,  which  happened  when  Plato  was  fifty-four  and  thus  at 
the  head  of  the  Academy  in  Athens,  and  Aristotle  was  a  boy  eleven 
years  old,  was  therefore  due  to  the  expulsion  of  lava  from  under 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth.     Is  it  not  remarkable  that  after  the  lapse  of 
so  many  centuries  we  should  be  able  to  explain  by  simple  principles 
a  calamity  which  so  disturbed  the  Greek  world,  and  completely 
bewildered  even  the  wisest  of  the  Athenian  sages? 

22.  As  the  result  of  his  researches  Aristotle  held  that  earth- 
quakes are  due  to  vapors  in  the  earth,  seeking  to  escape  and  diffuse 
themselves  in  the  atmosphere.    This  view  was  generally  adopted 
by  the  ancients,  for  we  find  it  clearly  stated  by  Strabo  and  Pliny, 
who  studied  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  Strabo  also  holds  the  theory 
that  the  land  is  uplifted  and  depressed  by  earthquakes.    He  seems 
to  have  held  that  not  only  islands  and  continents  but  also  moun- 
tains are  thus  produced,  which  essentially  accords  with  the  theory 
of  Aristotle,  who  had  carefully  studied  volcanic  and  earthquake 
phenomena,  including  several  eruptions  observed  to  occur  in  the 
sea.    Aristotle  had  observed  that  maritime  districts  are  especially 
subject  to  earthquakes.     In  view  of  the  results  of  modern  observa- 
tions and  the  theory  now  established,  may  we  not  justly  consider 
this  to  be  one  of  the  most  remarkable  inductions  of  antiquity? 

23.  The  theory  now  developed  was  therefore  vaguely  out- 
lined by  the  leading  Greek  philosophers,  especially  by  Aristotle, 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.   J.   SEE  111 

who  associated  the  causes  producing  earthquakes  and  volcanoes, 
islands  and  seismic  sea  waves,  all  of  which  were  attributed  to  the 
accumulation  of  vapors  in  the  earth.  This  natural  order  of 
thought  as  developed  by  the  Greeks  presents  a  striking  contrast 
to  the  disconnected  and  anachronous  views  on  these  subjects  still 
current  in  our  own  time,  and  admonishes  us  to  give  ample  heed  to 
the  independent  conceptions  of  the  Greeks  who  were  not  so  much 
swayed  as  some  moderns  are  by  contemporary  opinion. 

24.  The  theory  recently  current  that  great  seismic  disturb- 
ances of  the  earth's  crust  are  due  to  unequal  loading  of  different 
areas  arising  in  erosion,  denudation  and  deposits  of  sediment  is, 
to  say  the  least,  unworthy  of  modern  science,  because  such  forces 
could  produce  no  uplifts  whatever,  nor  could  they  produce  any 
serious  continuous  shaking,  even  if  a  slight  movement  of  the 
ground  should  occur.  It  is  the  movement  of  molten  rock  under 
the  earth's  crust,  in  the  process  of  adjustment  of  steam  pressure, 
which  forms  mountains,  shakes  down  cities  and  lays  waste  whole 
countries.  The  development  of  the  highest  mountain  ranges 
about  the  deepest  oceans  shows  that  these  great  uplifts  of  the 
crust  depend  upon  the  sea  and  not  at  all  on  the  shrinkage  of  the 
globe.  The  indications  of  nature  indeed  are  as  clear  as  the  noon- 
day sun,  and  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  apply  to  these  phenomena  a 
little  of  the  saving  common  sense  which  has  distinguished  man- 
kind in  the  better  ages  of  the  human  mind. 

This  summary  of  the  results  of  these  researches  is  necessarily 
incomplete,  but  probably  sufficiently  extended  to  afford  an  idea 
of  the  trend  of  the  investigation.  Among  American  geologists 
Dana  approached  most  nearly  to  the  true  views  of  the  physics  of 
the  earth's  crust,  and  we  shall  therefore  quote  his  statements  as 
they  were  made  over  forty  years  ago.  Some  of  his  intuitions  are 
quite  remarkable. 

VIEWS  OF  DANA. 

In  the  first  edition  of  his  Manual  of  Geology,  1863,  J.  D.  Dana 
treats  of  the  general  features  of  the  earth  and  shows  how  the  con- 


112         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

tinents  are  walled  in  by  mountains,  erected  about  their  borders, 
and  finally  adds  (p.  29) : 

(a)  "The  continents  thus  exemplify  the  law  laid  down,  and 
not  merely  as  to  high  borders  around  a  depressed  interior,  a  princi- 
ple stated  by  many  geographers, —  but  also  as  to  the  highest  bor- 
der being  on  the  side  of  the  greatest  ocean  (first  announced  in 
American  Jour.  Sci.  (2)  xvii,  vols.  iii,  iv,  1847,  and  xxii,  335,  1856). 
The  continents  then  are  all  built  on  one  model,  and  in  their  struc- 
ture and  origin  have  a  relation  to  the  oceans  that  is  of  fundamental 
importance."    He  also  observes  that  the  borders  of  continents 
are  from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  miles  wide,  and  infers  that 
"a  continent  cannot  be  less  than  a  thousand  miles,  (twice  five 
hundred),  in  width,"  otherwise  it  would  not  have  the  character- 
istic basin  form  with  mountain  barriers  about  a  low  interior. 

(b)  On  page  731  he  discusses  the  evolution  of  the  earth's 
great  outline  reliefs,  and  of  the  successive  phases  in  its  progress, 
summarizing  his  conclusions  as  follows: 

I.  "The  continents  have  mountains  along  their  borders, 
while  the  interior  is  relatively  low;   and  these  border  mountain 
chains  often  consist  of  two  or  three  ranges  elevated  at  different 
epochs." 

II.  "The  highest  mountain-border  faces  the  largest  ocean, 
and  conversely." 

III.  "The  continents  have  their  volcanoes  mainly  on  their 
borders,  the  interior  being  almost  wholly  without  them,  although 
they  were  largely  covered  with  salt  water  from  the  Azoic  age  to 
the  Tertiary.    Also  metamorphic  rocks  later  than  the  Azoic  are 
most  prevalent  near  the  borders." 

IV.  "Nearly  all  of  the  volcanoes  of  a  continent  are  on  the 
border  which  faces  the  largest  ocean." 

V.  "The  strata  of  the  continental  borders  are  for  the  most 
part  plicated  on  a  grand  scale,  while  those  of  the  interior  are  rela- 
tively but  little  disturbed." 

VI.  "The    successive  changes  of   level    on    coasts,   even 
from  the   Azoic  age   to  the  Tertiary,   have  been   in   general 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  113 

parallel  to  the  border  mountain  chains;  as  those  of  the  eastern 
United  States,  parallel  to  the  Appalachians,  and  those  of  the 
Pacific  side,  as  far  as  now  appears,  parallel  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains/ ' 

VIII.  "The  continents  and  oceans  had  their  general  outline 
or  form  defined  in  earliest  time.  This  has  been  proved  with  re- 
gard to  North  America  from  the  position  and  distribution  of  the 
first  beds  of  the  Lower  Silurian, —  those  of  the  Potsdam  epoch. 
The  facts  indicate  that  the  continent  of  North  America  had  its 
surface  near  tide-level,  part  above  and  part  below  it  (p.  196),  and 
this  will  probably  be  proved  to  be  the  conditions  in  primordial 
time  of  the  other  continents  also.  And,  if  the  outlines  of  the 
continents  were  marked  out,  it  follows  that  the  outlines  of  the 
oceans  were  no  less  so." 

The  three  other  conclusions  announced  by  Dana  are  of  less 
interest,  and  need  not  be  quoted  here. 

(c)  The  following  deductions  (p.  732)  regarding  the  positions 
of  the  reliefs  are  of  high  interest: 

"1.  The  situation  of  the  great  mountain  chains,  mainly  near 
the  borders  of  the  continents,  does  not  indicate  whether  the  eleva- 
ting pressure  acted  within  the  continental  or  oceanic  part  of  the 
earth's  crust.  But  the  occurrence  between  the  principal  range 
and  the  sea  coast  of  the  larger  part  of  the  volcanoes  (and,  therefore, 
of  the  profound  and  widely-opened  fractures)  of  these  borders,  of 
the  most  extensive  metamorphic  areas,  and  of  the  closest  and  most 
numerous  plications  of  the  strata,  as  so  well  sfyown  in  North 
America,  are  sufficient  evidence  that  the  force  acted  most  strongly 
from  the  oceanic  direction." 

"2.  The  relation  between  the  extent  of  the  oceans  and  the 
height  and  volcanic  action,  etc.,  of  their  borders  proves  that  the 
amount  of  force  in  action  has  some  relation  to  the  size  and  depth 
of  the  oceanic  basin.  The  Pacific  exhibits  its  greatness  in  the 
lofty  mountains  and  volcanoes  which  begirt  it." 

"3.  In  such  a  movement,  elevation  in  one  part  supposes 
necessarily  subsidence  in  another;  and,  while  the  continental  was 


114         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

the  part  of  the  crust  which  was  elevated,  the  oceanic  was  the  sub- 
siding part." 

In  connection  with  the  theory  that  the  mountains  are  formed 
by  the  expulsion  of  lava  from  under  the  sea,  though  the  operation 
of  world-shaking  earthquakes,  these  early  views  of  Dana  are  of 
great  interest.  But  in  other  respects  he  was  led  astray  by  the 
doctine  of  the  secular  refrigeration  of  the  globe;  for  he  says  that 
"no  other  cause  presents  itself  that  can  comprehend  in  its  action 
the  whole  globe  and  all  time."  He  thus  speaks  as  if  the  entire 
globe  were  shrinking,  whereas  local  changes  only  are  occurring, 
and  these  always  near  the  sea.  Dana's  views  that  "the  pressure 
of  the  subsiding  oceanic  portion  has  acted  against  the  resisting 
mass  of  the  continents;  and  thus  the  border  between  them  has 
become  elevated,  plicated,  metamorphosed  and  embossed  with 
volcanoes,"  is  alike  misleading  and  unjustifiable.  To  produce 
such  an  effect  the  settling  of  the  ocean  basin  would  have  to  be 
many  miles,  and  we  have  shown  that  no  such  shrinkage  has  taken 
place  since  the  crust  was  formed;  on  the  contrary  there  is  reason 
to  think  that  the  earth  is  expanding  at  a  rate  of  from  ten  to  one 
hundred  times  that  of  the  contraction  due  to  secular  cooling. 
Moreover  we  have  no  more  right  to  assume  that  the  continent  is 
squeezed  by  the  settlement  of  the  ocean,  than  that  the  ocean  is 
squeezed  by  the  settling  of  the  continent. 

(d)  We  have,  however,  recalled  these  views  in  order  to  do 
justice  to  the  most  original  of  the  older  American  geologists,  and 
also  to  let  the  student  see  where  he  departs  from  the  true  line  of 
thought.  Many  years  ago  Rev.  O.  Fisher  showed  that  shrinkage 
was  wholly  inadequate  to  account  for  the  height  of  the  mountains 
observed  upon  the  earth,  which  are  hundreds  of  times  higher  than 
the  contraction  theory  will  explain.  In  the  paper  on  the  cause 
of  earthquakes  it  is  shown  that  the  contraction  theory  is  also  em- 
phatically contradicted  by  the  present  distribution  of  mountains. 
And  in  the  second  paper,  "On  the  Temperature,  Secular  Cooling 
and  Contraction  of  the  Earth,  and  on  the  Theory  of  Earthquakes 
held  by  the  Ancients,"  it  is  shown  that  at  present  the  earth  is  not 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  115 

contracting  at  all;  so  we  are  compelled  to  abandon  the  older 
theories  entirely. 

As  heretofore  developed,  geology  has  presented  the  strange 
anomaly  of  offering  no  theories  adequate  to  account  for  the  uplift 
of  mountains  or  the  deposits  of  fossil  beds  thousands  of  feet  above 
the  sea.  This  is  the  more  remarkable,  since  in  the  days  of  Hum- 
boldt,  Lyell,  and  Darwin,  the  bodily  elevation  of  the  land  was  an 
accepted  item  of  belief.  But  subsequently  Lord  Kelvin,  Sir 
George  Darwin  and  other  eminent  British  physicists,  showed  from 
the  investigation  of  tidal  and  other  phenomena  that  the  earth  as 
a  whole  behaved  as  a  solid,  and  under  the  influence  of  this  line  of 
thought  geologists  gave  up  the  doctrine  of  the  bodily  elevation  of 
the  land,  and  restricted  themselves  to  the  collapse  of  portions  of 
the  crust  under  gravity.  Such  a  line  of  thought,  however,  utterly 
fails  to  explain  mountains  and  plateaus  and  islands,  as  well  as 
shells  and  other  organic  remains  at  great  height  above  the  sea 
level.  But  it  was  felt  that  the  argument  of  the  physicists  against 
the  bodily  yielding  of  the  earth  was  unanswerable,  and  so  it  was, 
yet  this  does  not  exclude  the  existence  of  a  layer  just  beneath  the 
crust  which  in  earthquakes  behaves  as  fluid. 

In  my  researches  a  theory  is  developed  by  which  these  two 
views  may  be  reconciled,  and  it  is,  I  think,  clearly  proved  that  in 
earthquakes  there  is  movement  of  molten  rock  beneath  the  crust. 
It  is  this  movement  of  molten  rock  beneath  the  earth's  crust  which 
produces  most  of  the  dislocations,  crumpling,  folding,  and  other 
phenomena  studied  in  geology.  If  such  a  view  is  justifiable,  it 
shows  us  how  cautious  we  must  be  in  drawing  final  conclusions, 
and  how  incomplete  all  the  sciences  still  are  today. 

We  must  now  refer  to  Daubree's  experiments,  and  the  prob- 
lem of  explaining  how  the  water  gets  beneath  the  earth's  crust, 
to  develop  the  steam  power  operative  in  earthquakes.  Daubree's 
experiments  have  shown  that  under  pressure  of  its  own  superin- 
cumbent column,  water  may  pass  through  cold  and  enter  hot  rocks, 
by  capillary  action,  and  increase  the  pressure  within,  notwith- 
standing the  increase  of  steam  pressure  on  the  under  side.  In 


116         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

this  way  Daubree  explained  volcanic  eruptions,  by  which  a  column 
of  molten  lava  is  forced  up  into  the  vent  of  a  volcano.  Though 
Daubree's  results  appear  to  have  a  good  experimental  basis,  we 
may  prove  our  fundamental  proposition  regarding  the  leakage  of 
the  oceans  quite  independently  of  these  experiments. 

Earthquakes  are  the  processes  by  which  mountains  are  pro- 
duced, and  observation  shows  that  these  forces  act  at  a  depth  of 
some  fifteen  miles,  where  the  pressure  is  so  great  that  no  vacancies 
exist.  When  the  coast  is  upheaved  by  an  earthquake  it  is  clear 
that  no  real  cavity  is  allowed  to  form  beneath;  in  the  same  way 
we  may  conclude  that  when  the  sea  bottom  sinks  after  an  earth- 
quake no  condensation  of  the  matter  of  average  density  takes 
place  beneath  the  bed  of  the  sea.  But  matter  is  expelled 
from  beneath  the  sea  bottom  and  pushed  under  the  land,  so 
that  the  coast  is  upraised  and  the  sea  bottom  sinks,  to  fill  up 
the  partial  cavity  formed  beneath  the  sea  by  the  expulsion 
of  lava. 

These  phenomena  are  repeatedly  observed  in  South  America, 
the  Aleutian  Islands  and  elsewhere,  and,  so  far  as  one  can  see, 
admit  of  but  one  interpretation.  Hence  we  may  conclude  with 
certainty  that  the  Andes  have  been  formed  by  the  expulsion  of 
lava  from  beneath  the  bed  of  the  adjacent  ocean;  this  is  the  true 
meaning  of  the  thundering  of  the  earthquakes  under  the  margin 
of  the  sea  already  witnessed  for  centuries,  but  not  heretofore  un- 
derstood by  men  of  science.  This  subterranean  thunder  is  the 
outward  expression  of  the  mighty  explosive  forces  by  which  the 
crust  along  the  coast  is  uplifted  into  some  of  the  mightiest  moun- 
tains of  the  globe. 

Since  the  earth  is  not  contracting,  nor  experiencing  any 
sensible  changes  due  to  secular  cooling,  it  is  evident  that  this  ex- 
pulsion of  lava  can  only  be  accomplished  by  explosive  vapor  such 
as  is  seen  to  issue  from  neighboring  volcanoes,  which  often  break 
out  into  eruption  simultaneously  with  an  earthquake  noticed  to 
produce  an  elevation  of  the  coast  and  a  sinking  of  the  sea  bottom. 
This  vapor  therefore  is  nothing  else  than  common  steam. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  117 

Now  the  steam  developing  beneath  the  earth's  crust  and  pro- 
ducing earthquakes  and  volcanic  activity  can  be  traced  to  but 
two  possible  sources:  First,  the  original  magma  of  the  globe, 
which,  in  default  of  a  better  explanation,  has  been  frequently 
invoked  by  the  geologist;  Second,  the  secular  leakage  of  the 
ocean  bottoms,  effected  through  fifteen  miles  of  solid  rock  like 
granite,  which  naturally  appeals  to  the  physicist.  If  the  escaping 
steam,  or  any  sensible  part  of  it,  came  from  the  central  magma 
of  the  globe,  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  necessarily  would  occur 
in  the  interior  of  the  continents  as  well  as  along  the  coasts,  on 
islands,  and  in  the  depths  of  the  sea.  For  the  continents  are 
large  areas,  and  altogether  cover  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  total 
surface  of  the  globe;  yet  the  volcanoes  and  world-shaking  earth- 
quakes are  confined  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  oceans  or  other 
large  bodies  of  water. 

It  clearly  follows  therefore  that  the  agitating  vapor  does  not 
come  from  the  central  magma  of  the  globe,  but  must  come  from 
the  secular  leakage  of  the  ocean  bottoms.  This  is  unmistakably 
indicated  by  the  most  overwhelming  evidence  of  nature,  and  hence 
it  follows  that  the  secular  leakage  of  the  ocean  bottoms  through 
fifteen  miles  of  rock  like  granite  is  effected  by  the  constant  pressure 
of  the  water  upon  the  bed  of  the  sea.  When  we  recall  that  the 
column  of  water  resting  on  the  sea  bottom  is  often  five  miles  deep, 
giving  a  steady  pressure  theoretically  adequate  for  throwing  a  jet 
to  that  height,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  the  water  should  work 
down  through  fifteen  miles  of  rock  like  granite. 

Accordingly  it  follows  also  that  Daubree's  experiments  are 
applicable  to  layers  of  rock  from  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  thick,  and 
our  fundamental  proposition  regarding  the  secular  leakage  of  the 
ocean  bottoms  is  proved  quite  independently  of  Daubree's  experi- 
ments. In  the  case  of  our  thinly  encrusted  planet  so  largely 
covered  with  water,  the  natural  arrangement  between  the  over- 
lying oceans  and  the  underlying  molten  globe  constitutes  a 
laboratory  of  the  most  imposing  magnitude,  infinitely  transcend- 
ing anything  ever  conceived  by  man,  with  gigantic  experiments 


118         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

constantly  going  on.  All  that  is  needed  therefore  is  for  the  philos- 
opher to  interpret  Nature's  stupendous  operations,  which  unfortu- 
nately only  too  often  prove  disastrous  to  human  life,  owing  to 
our  ignorance  and  disregard  of  natural  laws.  The  highest  duty 
of  the  philosopher  is  to  discover  these  laws  and  make  them 
available  to  the  public,  so  as  to  contribute  as  much  as  possible 
to  the  safety  and  repose  of  mankind. 

It  is  often  imagined  by  many  that  the  captains  of  industry 
are  the  principal  creators  of  national  wealth  and  prosperity,  and 
that  discoveries  of  natural  laws  are  of  little  value  compared  to 
material  things.  Is  it  necessary  to  point  out  the  inadequacy  of 
this  view?  Is  not  he  who  discovers  how  to  safeguard  and  preserve 
the  property  of  the  State  as  essential  to  the  public  well-being  as 
he  who  merely  develops,  without  knowing  how  to  build  so  as  to 
preserve,  the  products  of  human  labor?  Would  it  be  extreme  to 
hold  that  a  real  discoverer,  a  true  philosopher,  is  as  valuable  to 
the  State  as  any  captain  of  industry?  His  worldly  possessions,  it 
is  true,  may  be  small,  but  his  discoveries  are  useful  to  all  mankind 
of  the  present  and  future  generations;  yea,  they  are  the  one  im- 
perishable product  of  the  age,  a  priceless  heritage  of  civilization, 
and  given  freely  to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  proved  in  the  researches  here 
sketched,  there  will  in  the  future  be  no  excuse  for  our  cities  on  the 
coasts  of  deep  seas  being  consumed  by  conflagrations  after  earth- 
quakes; for  it  is  shown  that  all  places  on  the  coasts  of  deep  seas 
are  liable  to  earthquake  disturbances,  and  the  people  should 
be  prepared  for  such  emergencies  by  extra  and  independent 
systems  of  water  works.  If  San  Francisco  had  possessed  such 
knowledge  before  the  late  disaster,  and  had  had  the  courage 
to  live  up  to  it,  she  would  not  have  been  laid  waste  by  the 
fire,  nor  would  the  earthquake  damages  have  proved  very 
serious.  But  human  frailty  is  such  that  we  can  learn  only  by 
experience.  Let  us  hope  that  the  lesson  will  not  soon  be  for- 
gotten, and  that  other  cities  on  the  coast  will  be  prepared  for 
possible  emergencies. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  119 

In  the  same  way  there  is  little  excuse  for  damage  by  seismic 
sea  waves.  If  ships  put  promptly  to  sea  on  the  first  sign  of  the 
withdrawal  of  the  water  from  the  shore,  they  will  usually  be  safe, 
and  can  ride  securely  over  the  waves  due  to  the  sinking  of  the 
sea  bottom;  whereas  if  they  remain  in  the  harbor  they  are  almost 
sure  to  be  stranded  and  perhaps  destroyed,  with  enormous  losses 
of  life  and  property. 

The  researches  of  Science  therefore  have  an  eminently  prac- 
tical and  humane  value,  in  addition  to  their  purely  philosophic 
interest.  The  preservation  and  promotion  of  Science  has  there- 
fore become  one  of  the  highest  duties  of  the  State;  for  the  discovery 
of  natural  laws  is  really  necessary  to  the  protection  of  the  people 
and  the  preservation  of  civilization. 


CHAPTER  XL 

1908. 

HOW  THE  MOUNTAINS  WERE  MADE  IN  THE  DEPTHS   OF  THE  SEA.* 

By  T.  J.  J.  SEE. 


in  1906  the  daily  press  published  accounts  of  the 
sudden  appearance  in  Alaskan  waters  of  Metcalf  Island, 
and  the  illustrated  weeklies  have  since  given  photographs 
showing  its  eruption  above  the  sea  as  a  volcano.  More  recently, 
another  island  has  been  raised  in  the  Aleutian  chain;  and  every 
month  or  so  we  read  in  press  dispatches  of  eruptions  occurring 
somewhere  in  the  sea,  and  of  islands  being  lifted  above  the  water. 

The  experienced  navigator  has  often  heard  of  or  seen  these 
submarine  outbreaks,  and  regards  the  uplift  of  islands  as  a  common 
occurrence  —  long  familiar  to  the  explorer  of  the  oceans.  It  never 
occurs  to  him  that  these  volcanic  outbreaks  are  especially  extraor- 
dinary. On  the  other  hand,  the  learned  scientist  in  the  secluded 
life  of  the  University,  constantly  occupied  with  books,  is  largely 
withdrawn  not  only  from  the  world,  but  also  from  contact  with 
actual  nature,  and  overlooks  or  underestimates  the  significance  of 
what  is  so  often  reported  by  the  ocean  voyager.  The  more  active 
scientist  explores  the  mountains  on  the  land,  but  gives  very  little 
thought  to  those  in  the  depths  of  the  sea. 

Thus  the  observations  of  the  navigator  have  not  been  ade- 
quately considered  by  the  explorer  of  the  continent,  and  conse- 
quently the  theories  formed  from  the  study  of  the  land  do  not 
accord  with  the  facts  observed  in  the  ocean.  But  as  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  ocean  has  increased,  it  has  been  remarked  with  sur- 
prise that  the  sea  bottom  is  here  and  there  upraised  and  folded 
into  mountains,  which  sometimes  project  above  the  water  as 

*  Reprinted  from  the  Pacific  Monthly  for  September,  1908,  by  permission 
of  Sunset  —  the  Pacific  Monthly. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  121 

islands,  and  again  are  entirely  hidden  from  our  view  by  the  great 
depths  of  the  sea.  The  naturalist  who  has  been  occupied  with 
the  investigation  of  mountains  on  the  land  finds  himself  greatly 
perplexed  to  account  for  those  in  the  oceans. 

For  a  long  time  it  was  supposed  that  only  isolated  cones  arose 
from  the  deep,  and  now  and  then  appeared  above  the  water  as 
volcanic  islands.  This  was  in  fact  observed  in  the  classic  period 
by  the  Greek  and  Romans.  Aristotle,  Strabo  and  Pliny  distinctly 
mention  eruptions  in  the  sea,  and  give  accounts  of  how  certain 
islands  were  raised  above  the  water  within  historical  times.  In 
striking  contrast  to  this  natural  attitude  of  the  ancient  writers, 
we  find  in  the  modern  geologies  no  general  theory  of  island 
formation.  Considering  the  enormous  advance  in  science 
during  the  past  two  thousand  years,  this  appears  to  be  a  strange 
and  almost  unaccountable  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  modern 
investigator. 

When,  however,  the  exact  measurement  of  the  ocean  depths 
made  within  recent  years  showed  not  only  peaks  and  cones  scatter- 
ed widely  over  the  sea  bottom,  but  also  great  ranges  of  mountains 
in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  the  old  view  that  islands  arose  only  from 
isolated  cones  obviously  could  no  longer  be  held.  Geologists  have 
long  accepted  the  theory  that  the  mountains  were  formed  by  the 
shrinkage  of  the  earth,  due  to  the  progress  of  secular  cooling,  and 
they  have  explained  the  mountains  on  the  land  by  the  subsidence 
of  the  ocean  basins,  which,  it  was  held,  pushed  up  the  edges  of  the 
continents.  Yet  if  mountains  exist  also  in  the  depths  of  the  sea, 
this  theory  of  oceanic  subsidence  would  not  well  account  for  these 
submarine  folds.  Thus  the  discovery  of  mountain  chains  in  the 
ocean  excited  the  surprise  without  satisfying  the  curiosity  of  the 
naturalist. 

By  what  process,  then,  are  mountains  formed  in  the  sea,  and 
are  they  formed  on  the  land  by  the  same  cause?  This  is  a  question 
which  we  shall  endeavor  to  answer  in  the  course  of  this  paper,  and 
the  result  is  so  general  as  to  be  of  interest  to  every  reader  of 
scientific  literature. 


122         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Just  south  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  there  is  a  deep  trench  in 
the  sea,  which  has  a  depth  of  from  3,000  to  over  4,000  fathoms  — 
from  18,000  to  over  24,000  feet.  This  depression  is  long  and  nar- 
row, just  like  a  trough,  as  if  dug  out  by  supreme  intelligence;  and 
right  next  to  it  on  the  north,  the  Aleutain  Islands  run  parallel  to 
this  depression  all  along.  The  Aleutian  Islands  are  in  fact  a 
mighty  mountain  range  under  water,  with  only  a  few  peaks  here 
and  there  projecting  above  the  sea  as  islands.  This  great  ridge 
is  not  only  parallel  to  the  deep  trench  just  south  of  it,  but  also 
of  almost  exactly  the  same  volume;  so  that  if  one  had  a  shovel 
large  enough  to  take  off  the  island  ridge  and  throw  it  in  the  trench, 
it  would  about  fill  it  up. 

Now  if  we  go  along  in  a  level  plain  and  come  to  a  mound,  with 
a  depression  by  the  side,  of  about  the  same  volume,  do  we  not 
immediately  conclude  that  the  mound  came  out  of  the  hole  in 
the  ground,  and  that  the  mound-builders  have  been  at  work  there? 
And  if  we  find  not  only  one  mound,  but  many,  each  accompanied 
by  an  adjacent  hole  of  corresponding  volume,  do  we  not  infer  that 
the  several  mounds  came  out  of  the  respective  holes,  and  that  the 
whole  group  of  mounds  is  the  work  of  a  colony  of  mound-builders? 
Such  a  group  of  mounds  once  existed  where  the  city  of  St.  Louis 
now  stands,  and  for  that  reason  the  metropolis  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  often  is  called  the  Mound  City. 

Again,  suppose  the  mounds  were  arranged  in  a  line,  with  the 
holes  all  on  one  side,  and  close  together;  a  little  shoveling  would 
convert  them  into  a  continuous  trench  with  a  bank  on  one  side, 
like  an  irrigation  ditch.  If  we  go  into  a  level  field  and  find  such  a 
trench  and  adjacent  embankment  of  equal  volume,  so  that  the 
bank  would  fill  up  the  depression,  if  shoveled  in,  we  know  that  the 
ditch  diggers  have  been  at  work,  and  that  the  bank  was  made  of 
earth  taken  out  of  the  ditch. 

What  we  have  here  considered  with  regard  to  familiar  sights 
on  the  land,  we  encounter  also  in  the  bed  of  the  sea.  There  are 
islands  with  depressions  or  holes  near  them,  of  about  equal  volume; 
and  there  are  ridges  or  mountain  ranges  with  trenches  near  them 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  123 

of  so  nearly  the  same  volume  that  the  depressions  could  be  filled 
up  by  shoveling  off  the  elevations.  Thus  we  are  led  to  conclude 
that  the  elevations  and  the  depressions  are  physically  connected; 
and  that  the  elevations  resulted  from  matter  taken  from  under 
the  depressions,  and  transferred  to  its  present  position  beneath  the 
adjacent  range. 

Now  in  the  case  of  these  inequalities  on  our  level  fields,  some 
process  equivalent  to  surface  shoveling  was  actually  used.  The 
islands  and  mountain  ranges  in  the  sea,  however,  were  formed  by 
a  much  mightier  process;  namely,  by  the  expulsion  of  lava  from 
beneath  the  earth's  crust,  which  pushes  it  up  in  one  place,  and 
permits  it  to  sink  down  in  another,  so  that  matter  is  transferred 
from  one  place  to  the  other  by  the  movement  of  lava  streams 
beneath  the  cool,  solid  crust  of  the  globe. 

To  understand  how  this  takes  place,  let  us  consider  the  world- 
shaking  earthquakes  which  so  frequently  occur  in  the  Aleutian 
Islands.  Major  Button  justly  observes  that  this  region  is  one 
of  the  chief  breeding-grounds  of  world-shakers.  And  if  we  com- 
pare the  distribution  of  earthquakes  given  in  Milne's  earthquake 
map  of  the  world,  with  this  region,  we  shall  find  that  the  trench 
and  adjacent  ridge  run  right  through  the  center  of  the  blackest 
part  of  the  great  earthquake  belt  surrounding  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
This  indicates  that  the  earthquakes  are  concerned  with  the  digging 
out  of  the  trench  to  the  south  of  these  islands,  and  with  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  islands  themselves,  a  number  of  which  have  been  raised 
above  the  water  during  the  historical  period.  In  fact  three  or 
more  new  volcanoes  in  this  range  have  broken  out  since  these 
islands  were  first  explored  by  Europeans. 

When  a  great  earthquake  occurs  in  the  Aleutian  Islands  the 
shaking  frequently  is  so  violent  that  persons  cannot  stand  upon 
their  feet.  In  one  well-known  case  further  east,  at  Yakutat  Bay, 
Alaska,  September  10-15, 1899,  a  party  of  explorers  felt  the  shaking 
so  terribly  that  they  could  not  stand  on  their  feet  and  had  to  lie 
on  the  ground;  and  while  they  were  thus  prostrate,  expecting  the 
earth  to  open  or  an  avalanche  from  the  mountains  to  overwhelm 


124         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

them,  the  adajcent  sea  was  thrown  into  great  eddies,  and  a  huge 
wave  swept  the  shore,  up-rooting  the  forests,  and  carrying  the 
helpless  explorers  some  distance  inland.  By  good  fortune,  how- 
ever, they  escaped  without  serious  injury. 

It  may  well  be  imagined  that  they  were  not  altogether  sur- 
prised to  find  that  great  avalanches  of  stone  and  ice  had  slid  down 
the  mountains,  and  vast  glaciers  had  slipped  into  the  sea,  carrying 
everything  before  them.  Nay,  worse  still!  The  solid  land  of  the 
coast  for  over  a  hundred  miles  had  been  bodily  uplifted  many  feet, 
the  maximum  ascertained  elevation  being  forty-seven  feet  and  four 
inches.  Barnacles,  and  other  marine  animals  were  now  sticking 
to  the  rocks  far  above  the  reach  of  the  highest  tides,  and  furnished 
conclusive  proof  of  the  mighty  uplift  of  the  earth's  crust. 

This  great  earthquake  was  carefully  investigated  in  1905  by 
Professor  R.  S.  Tarr,  of  Cornell  University,  and  Lawrence  Martin, 
of  the  National  Geographical  Society.  Their  investigation  as 
published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Geological  Society  of  America, 
May,  1906,  included  photographs  showing  the  barnacles  still 
sticking  to  the  rocks.  Now  from  what  is  shown  here,  it  follows 
that  when  the  sea  coast  is  upraised  by  an  earthquake,  as  often 
happens,  lava  is  expelled  from  under  the  sea  and  pushed  under  the 
land.  It  is  in  this  way  that  mountains  are  formed  along  the  coasts 
and  in  the  depths  of  the  sea.  The  parallelism  of  the  mountains  to 
the  sea  coast  is  familiar  to  every  student  of  elementary  geography. 

It  often  happens  in  the  Aleutian  Islands  that  a  great  earth- 
quake is  followed  by  a  so-called  "tidal  wave,"  or  as  it  is  more 
properly  called,  a  seismic  sea  wave.  In  the  most  important  class 
of  these  waves  it  is  noticed  that  after  the  earthquake  the  water 
withdraws  from  the  shore,  by  a  gradual  draining  away,  as  in  the 
tides,  only  more  rapidly.  Ships  anchored  in  the  harbor  are  often 
left  stranded,  and  the  bottom  laid  bare,  even  when  the  previous 
depth  of  the  water  was  seven  fathoms.  But  in  an  hour's  time  or 
less,  the  sea  returns  as  a  great  wave,  which,  near  the  shore,  becomes 
a  mighty  vertical  wall  of  water,  and  carries  everything  before  it. 
Ships  are  thus  washed  a  long  distance  inland,  and  many  of  them 


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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  125 

lost  by  dashing  against  rocks  during  the  dreadful  inundation  of 
the  sea;  and  in  the  same  way,  cities  lying  near  the  sea  level  are 
overflowed.  In  some  cases  they  are  first  shaken  down  by  the 
earthquake,  and  then  overwhelmed  by  the  sea;  so  that  Nature 
seems  bent  on  their  utter  destruction  —  one  calamity  following 
swift  upon  another. 

Now  the  cause  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  sea  from  the  shore  is  the 
sinking  of  the  sea  bottom.  The  subsidence  of  the  bed  is  indicated 
by  the  way  in  which  the  water  drains  away.  Lava  has  been  ex- 
pelled from  beneath  the  sea  bottom  till  the  overlying  crust  becomes 
unstable,  and  when  it  is  again  shaken  in  a  great  earthquake  it 
often  gives  down.  The  water  then  flows  in  on  all  sides  to  fill  up 
the  depression  in  the  sea  level  caused  by  the  sudden  drop  of  the 
sunken  area;  and  after  a  little  while  the  currents  meet  in  the  center 
of  the  depression,  and  by  their  mutual  impact  raise  the  depressed 
level  into  a  ridge.  The  flowing  of  the  currents  towards  the  center 
of  the  depression  draws  the  water  away  from  the  shore,  so  that 
the  ships  are  left  stranded  on  the  bare  bottom  and  perfectly  help- 
less. And  when  the  ridge  upraised  by  the  mutual  impact  of  the 
currents  at  length  collapses  by  the  gradual  settlement  of  the  water 
under  its  own  gravitation,  a  great  wave  is  sent  ashore  to  add  to 
the  horrors  of  the  earthquake. 

Many  cases  of  the  sinking  of  the  sea  bottom  are  known,  and 
in  some  instances  it  is  found  that  the  drop  amounted  to  hundreds 
of  fathoms.  It  is  by  this  process  of  undermining  and  sinking  that 
the  deep  trench  has  been  dug  out  near  the  Aleutian  Islands.  In 
fact,  Nature  gives  a  clear  indication  of  her  own  mighty  processes; 
for  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  in  Japan,  in  the  East  Indies 
and  elsewhere,  the  coast  often  is  upraised  by  the  same  earthquake 
which  causes  the  sinking  of  the  sea  bottom  so  clearly  foretold  by 
the  withdrawal  of  the  sea  and  its  return  as  a  great  wave. 

The  uplifting  of  the  sea  coast  indicates  that  something  has 
been  pushed  under  it,  and  the  sinking  of  the  adjacent  sea  bottom 
shows  that  it  has  been  undermined  by  the  expulsion  of  the  lava 
which  has  been  injected  under  the  land.  As  the  two  areas  are 


126         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

side  by  side,  and  both  movements  occur  in  earthquakes  which 
disturb  the  intervening  region  most  terribly  (as  if  molten  rock 
were  moving  beneath  the  crust)  it  follows  that  a  mass  of  lava  is 
expelled  from  under  the  sea  and  pushed  under  the  neighboring 
coast.  This  unquestionably  is  the  general  process  in  the  greatest 
earthquakes. 

The  continuation  of  this  process  over  long  periods  of  time 
gives  rise  to  the  expulsion  of  a  vast  quanity  of  lava  from  beneath 
the  sea,  and  the  crust  along  the  shore  becomes  upheaved  into  a 
mighty  ridge  of  mountains.  In  South  America  such  uplifts  of 
the  coast,  with  accompanying  seismic  sea  waves,  have  often  been 
observed.  This  is  the  continuation  of  the  process  by  which  the 
Andes  were  formed. 

The  coast  of  Chile  was  raised  by  the  earthquake  of  1822.  And 
in  1835,  the  movement  was  repeated  on  a  still  larger  scale,  in  the 
earthquake  witnessed  by  Darwin  and  Fitzroy,  who  were  then  on 
their  famous  voyage  around  the  world.  This  disturbance  raised 
the  coast  five  or  six  feet  for  several  hundred  miles,  and  the  city  of 
Concepcion  was  totally  destroyed. 

On  August  16,  1906,  when  Valparaiso  was  laid  waste  by  one 
of  the  most  terrible  earthquakes  of  modern  times,  it  is  said  that 
the  coast  was  raised  about  ten  feet.  The  earthquake  of  1835  was 
calculated  by  Lyell  to  have  raised  the  coast  by  an  amount  cor- 
responding to  the  bulk  of  Mt.  Aetna;  in  other  words,  according 
to  our  modern  view,  a  bulk  of  lava  equal  to  Mt.  Aetna  was  pushed 
under  the  shore,  and  the  sea  bottom  correspondingly  under- 
mined. 

Not  only  are  the  displacements  of  matter  beneath  the  crust 
large,  but  also  in  the  same  direction  as  those  great  movements  of 
the  past,  by  which  the  mountains  have  been  so  greatly  uplifted, 
and  the  sea  bottom  so  deeply  sunk  down. 

For  the  beaches  at  Valparaiso  were  found  by  Darwin  to  have 
been  uplifted  1,300  feet  in  recent  geological  time;  and  more  recent 
travelers  have  found  marine  shells  in  the  Andes  at  a  height  of  at 
least  15,000  feet.  Thus  we  connect  the  fossils  at  the  greatest 


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RELIEF  MAP  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Illustrating  the  New  Theory  that  the  Mountains  are  formed  by  the  oceans,  and  thus  run  parallel 
to  the  sea  coast.     From  Frye's  Complete  Geography,  by  permission  of  Ginn  &  Co.,  Publishers. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  127 

altitude  with  the  uplift  of  the  sea  coast  by  earthquakes,  and  may 
affirm  that  most  of  our  highest  mountains  were  once  beneath  the 
sea,  and  have  since  been  raised  to  such  great  heights  by  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  earthquake  process.  The  small  uplifts  of  the 
coast  witnessed  at  the  present  time  are  but  a  part  of  the  great 
expulsions  of  lava  from  beneath  the  sea  towards  the  land,  which 
resulted  in  development  of  mountains  along  the  coasts  and  in  the 
depths  of  the  ocean. 

In  this  manner  the  Aleutian  Islands  are  being  raised  into  a 
mighty  mountain  chain  in  the  sea;  eventually  it  will  rise  above 
the  water  and  connect  North  America  with  Asia,  so  that  the  Arctic 
will  be  entirely  cut  off  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

If  now  the  question  be  asked  why  the  earthquake  and  moun- 
tain-forming forces  are  so  powerful  in  certain  places,  and  so  feeble 
in  others,  we  reply  that  it  is  all  due  to  the  leakage  under  the  hydro- 
static pressure  on  the  bottom  resulting  from  the  depth  of  the  ocean. 
The  deeper  the  ocean  becomes  the  greater  the  pressure  on  the 
bottom,  and  the  more  water  leaks  through  the  crust,  to  form  steam 
beneath.  The  explosive  vapor  slowly  accumulates,  and  when  it 
must  have  relief,  the  region  shakes  till  a  fault  moves,  and  the  crust 
readjusts  itself  so  as  to  give  more  space  beneath.  Fault  is  the 
term  used  by  geologists  to  denote  a  crack  in  the  rocks  of  the  earth's 
crust,  which  is  made  up  of  blocks  like  pavement,  only  very  much 
larger. 

It  is  observed  that  the  earthquakes  are  always  worst  where 
the  sea  is  deepest,  because  the  leakage  there  is  greatest.  If  one 
looks  at  a  map  of  the  ocean  depths  as  laid  down  by  the  Coast- 
Survey  measurements,  he  may  tell  from  the  trenches  in  the  sea 
where  the  earthquakes  are  worst.  These  deep  troughs  always 
follow  the  earthquake  belts,  or  rather  the  earthquakes  follow  these 
deep  troughs,  though  some  earthquakes  occur  remote  from  them. 
The  vast  majority  of  the  greatest  earthquakes,  however,  always 
occur  near  these  dugout  places  in  the  sea  bottom;  as  along  the 
coast  west  of  South  America,  near  Guam,  in  the  Friendly  Islands 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  Ocean  between  Samoa  and  New  Zealand, 


128         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

in  the  East  Indies,  near  the  Phillipines,  the  Japanese,  Kurile,  and 
Aleutian  Islands. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  worst  earthquake  country  in  the 
world  is  Japan,  and  just  east  of  these  islands  the  sea  over  an  area 
of  considerable  extent  is  4,600  fathoms  deep.  The  hydrostatic 
pressure  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  here  great  enough  to  throw  a 
jet  of  water  five  and  a  half  miles  high.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  such 
a  pressure  should  force  the  water  slowly  into  the  bowels  of  the 
earth? 

The  crust  is  made  of  solid  rock,  like  granite,  twenty  miles 
thick,  yet  under  such  a  pressure  as  that  exerted  by  the  deepest 
oceans,  the  water  will  slowly  leak  through,  and  form  so  much 
steam  in  the  underlying  lava  that  it  will  swell  and  finally  shake, 
till  it  gets  more  space  by  pushing  out  at  the  edges. 

The  whole  island  of  Nipon  has  thus  been  raised  above  the 
ocean.  If  Nipon  were  dug  off  and  thrown  into  the  Tuscarora 
Deep,  it  would  just  about  fill  up  that  immense  depression.  The 
earthquakes  in  Japan  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  islands  are  still 
rising  from  the  sea,  and  as  the  Tuscarora  trench  is  deepening  all 
the  time,  Japan  will  always  be  greatly  afflicted  by  earthquakes 
and  seismic  sea  waves. 

The  region  of  the  Friendly  Islands  in  the  Southern  Pacific 
Ocean,  between  Samoa  and  New  Zealand,  affords  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  the  formation  of  mountains  in  the  open  sea  at  some  distance 
from  a  continent.  Here  two  long,  narrow  connecting  trenches  are 
dug  out  to  a  depth  of  over  4,000  fathoms;  and  on  the  west,  just 
parallel  to  the  trenches,  a  mountain  chain  is  lifting  its  crest  above 
the  water,  a  few  of  the  highest  peaks  already  projecting  as  islands. 

It  is  observed  that  the  range  always  is  formed  on  the  side  of 
the  trench  opposite  to  the  ocean,  because  the  secular  leakage  of 
the  ocean  causes  the  expulsion  of  the  lava  to  be  effected  in  the 
direction  of  the  land.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  steam  is  formed 
under  the  ocean,  but  scarcely  at  all  under  the  land;  and  hence  it 
always  works  out  towards  the  edges  of  the  oceans,  and  thus  walls 
in  the  sea  by  high  mountains  about  their  borders. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  129 

Over  half  a  century  ago  the  veteran  American  geologist,  J. 
D.  Dana,  the  famous  professor  at  Yale  College,  noticed  that  the 
highest  mountains  lie  opposite  the  deepest  oceans,  and  conversely- 
He  inferred  that  the  relation  of  the  extent  and  depth  of  the  ocean 
to  the  height  and  grandeur  of  the  mountains  about  its  borders  was 
of  fundamental  importance.  Yet  Dana  did  not  perceive  correctly 
the  real  cause  of  mountain-making,  for  all  geologists  have  hereto- 
fore ascribed  the  formation  of  mountains  to  the  shrinkage  arising 
from  the  secular  cooling  of  the  earth. 

Even  now  many  persons  will  be  surprised  to  learn  that  this 
old  theory  has  no  valid  foundation  in  Nature,  and  will  have  to  be 
entirely  abandoned.  But  such  is  the  case.  It  will  have  to  be 
given  up  and  thrown  overboard,  just  like  the  more  famous  Ptole- 
maic system  of  astronomy,  which  was  finally  overthrown  by  Coper- 
nicus in  1543.  Previous  to  that  time  Ptolemy's  system  had  stood 
the  test  of  fourteen  centuries,  since  the  epoch  of  the  school  of 
Alexandria,  where  the  Almagest  was  composed  in  the  reigns  of 
Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius,  about  140  A.D. 

In  the  same  way,  the  contraction  theory  is  venerable  from 
age.  It  was  vaguely  hinted  at  by  Newton,  and  in  1829  was  given 
its  final  form  by  the  famous  French  geologist,  Elie  de  Beaumont. 
He  held  that  the  earth  is  cooling  by  the  gradual  dissipation  of  heat 
into  space,  and  the  nucleus  shrinking  away  from  the  crust;  so  that 
at  intervals  the  crust  collapses  to  fill  up  the  vacant  space,  and  this 
causes  the  rocks  to  be  crumpled  and  pushed  up  into  mountain 
ranges  formed  along  the  lines  of  fracture. 

If  this  theory  were  true  the  mountain  chains  ought  to  run  in 
any  direction  with  respect  to  the  oceans;  and  they  certainly  would 
not  always  run  parallel  to  the  sea  coast.  In  some  cases  at  least 
the  mountains  would  run  diagonally  across  the  continents;  yet 
this  never  happens  in  practice,  and  we  may  be  very  sure  that  this 
antiquated  theory  has  no  foundation  whatever  in  actual  Nature. 

The  doctrine  of  the  secular  cooling  of  the  globe  has  behind  it 
the  weight  of  ancient  opinion,  and  still  finds  a  place  in  most  books 
which  deal  with  the  earth's  development.  But  as  a  matter  of 


130         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

fact  secular  cooling  is  of  very  little  consequence,  and  the  theory 
is  correspondingly  misapplied  in  many  of  the  sciences  today. 

In  my  investigations  on  the  Temperature  of  the  Earth  recently 
published  by  the  American  Philosophical  Society  at  Philadelphia, 
it  is  shown  that  the  cooling  is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the 
crust  of  the  globe,  and  that  practically  no  shrinkage  occurs  from 
the  escape  of  heat  from  the  deep  interior,  because  the  amount  of 
heat  lost  is  altogether  too  small.  Nor  has  such  shrinkage  been 
appreciable  at  any  time  since  the  crust  was  formed,  in  the  original 
consolidation  of  the  globe.  Before  the  formation  of  a  crust,  when 
the  primordial  consolidation  had  not  yet  begun,  there  may  indeed 
have  been  a  considerable  loss  of  heat  from  the  incandescent  sur- 
face, but  since  the  outer  layers  became  cooled  and  encrusted, 
and  the  oceans  were  formed  from  vapor  previously  floating  in 
the  atmosphere,  the  effects  of  cooling  have  been  very  slight 
indeed. 

We  may  easily  convince  ourselves  of  the  correctness  of  this 
view  by  recalling  that  no  important  changes  now  going  on  upon 
the  earth  can  be  clearly  ascribed  to  the  effects  of  secular  cooling. 
The  most  important  changes  are  those  due  to  earthquakes,  and 
earthquakes  certainly  are  not  due  to  that  cause;  for  if  they  were, 
they  would  break  out  in  the  interior  of  the  continents  as  well  as 
along  the  coasts  and  in  the  depths  of  the  sea. 

Is  not  an  inland  region  such  as  Kansas  or  Sahara  cooling  as 
much  as  an  equal  area  of  any  sea  coast?  If  cooling  were  the  cause 
of  the  great  earthquakes,  why  should  they  occur  near  the  sea  and 
not  in  high  dry  regions  in  the  interior  of  the  continents? 

Moreover  the  Andes  and  the  coast  mountains  in  Alaska  are 
constantly  shaken,  while  those  in  Colorado,  far  from  the  sea,  are 
never  seriously  disturbed.  This  shows  that  mountain-making 
depends  in  some  way  upon  the  sea;  and  we  have  seen  that  it  arises 
from  the  leakage  of  the  oceans,  which  develops  steam  beneath  the 
crust.  This  swells  and  finally  shakes  and  pushes  out  some  of  the 
saturated  lava  at  the  edges,  so  that  the  crust  is  uplifted  into  moun- 
tains along  the  borders  of  the  continents  and  in  the  sea. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  131 

Fossils  now  found  far  inland  show  that  at  one  time  the  sea 
covered  the  high  plateaus  of  our  western  states,  and  extended  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  whole  country  west  of  Laramie, 
Wyoming,  has  been  raised  out  of  the  sea  in  recent  geological  times; 
and  earthquakes  obviously  have  been  the  means  of  this  great 
uplift,  which  has  widened  the  continent  by  a  thousand  miles,  and 
raised  the  plateaus  about  a  mile  above  the  sea. 

In  the  same  way  the  great  plateaus  in  South  America  and  in 
Asia  have  been  uplifted  by  earthquakes.  The  plateau  of  Tibet 
is  three  miles  above  the  sea,  and  bones  of  elephants  and  rhi- 
noceroses now  found  there  show  that  the  uplift  has  occurred 
within  recent  geological  time,  because  those  animals  could  not 
live  at  that  altitude.  Accordingly  they  must  have  flourished 
there  when  Tibet  was  only  about  a  mile  above  the  sea,  and 
the  uplifting  has  since  carried  their  bones  to  much  greater 
elevation. 

Perhaps  the  reader  will  agree  that  the  process  here  outlined 
for  certain  mountain  chains  is  the  true  one,  but  yet  ask  whether 
it  is  not  possible  that  some  have  been  formed  by  other  causes,  such 
as  the  shrinkage  of  the  globe?  He  may  notice  that  all  mountains 
are  not  parallel  to  the  sea  coast,  and  thus  imagine  that  such  ex- 
ceptional inland  ranges  were  formed  by  a  different  cause.  To 
this  conjecture  we  may  reply  that  Nature  has  one  uniform  process, 
and  the  formation  in  all  cases  is  due  to  the  same  physical  agency. 
And  while  we  have  not  yet  explored  the  earth's  surface  sufficiently 
to  ascertain  exactly  how  all  the  mountains  were  produced,  we 
may  be  sure  that  the  cause  is  always  the  same. 

That  some  mountains  could  be  formed  by  one  process  and 
some  by  another  is  inconceivable.  We  do  not  know  the  extent 
of  the  sea  in  past  geological  ages,  and  until  this  unwritten  history 
is  fully  developed  —  it  may  take  centuries  to  do  it  properly  - 
we  cannot  make  out  the  precise  details  by  which  all  the  moun- 
tains were  formed.  But  we  have  proved  how  they  are  formed  in 
the  clearest  cases,  and  as  nearly  all  are  parallel  to  the  shore,  as  if 
due  to  the  expulsion  of  lava  from  beneath  the  sea,  there  can  be  no 


132         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

possible  doubt  that  we  have  found  the  true  and  universal  cause  of 
mountain  formation  in  general. 

The  chief  purpose  of  earthquakes  is  to  raise  land  above  the  sea. 
These  disturbances  seem  very  destructive  to  animal  and  vegetable 
life,  and  especially  to  mankind;  but  without  them  the  earth  would 
still  be  entirely  covered  by  the  oceans,  and  none  of  the  higher 
forms  of  life  could  have  been  developed  on  our  planet. 

Though  the  cosmical  purpose  of  earthquakes  was  not  under- 
stood by  the  ancients,  the  uplift  of  strata  by  these  disturbances 
was  distinctly  taught  by  Strabo;  and  he  cited  the  presence  of 
shells  far  inland  as  proof  of  the  former  extent  of  the  sea.  These 
views  have  long  been  held  by  investigators,  but  in  recent  years 
Lord  Kelvin  and  Sir  G.  H.  Darwin  have  proved  from  their  mathe- 
matical researches  on  the  tides  and  other  phenomena  that  the 
earth  behaves  as  a  solid,  and  hence  does  not  have  a  liquid 
nucleus,  as  geologists  had  long  been  led  to  suppose.  On  this 
restricted  view  of  the  case,  the  uplift  of  the  land  above  the  sea 
could  not  be  explained. 

The  geologists  therefore  gave  up  the  theory  that  the  interior 
of  the  earth  is  liquid,  and  the  solid  crust  subject  to  uplifts,  and 
adopted  the  view  that  the  globe  is  solid  throughout.  This  con- 
clusion, however,  is  unjustifiable;  for  just  beneath  the  crust  is  a 
layer  which  in  earthquakes  is  shown  to  behave  as  a  fluid.  Molten 
rock  actually  moves  beneath  the  solid  crust  in  great  earthquakes, 
and  it  is  this  enforced  movement  of  the  lava,  some  twenty  miles 
beneath  our  feet,  under  accumulating  steam  pressure,  that  shakes 
down  cities  and  often  devastates  whole  countries. 

When  we  have  the  oceans  for  an  overlying  tank  of  water,  and 
the  incandescent  nucleus  of  our  globe  for  a  furnace,  the  natural 
arrangement  is  such  that  the  leakage  of  the  thin  crust  between  the 
water  and  the  underlying  fire,  is  likely  to  give  rise  to  some  gigantic 
experiments.  It  is  this  secular  leakage  and  nothing  else  which 
produces  earthquakes,  volcanoes,  mountain  formation,  the  uplift 
of  islands  and  plateaus,  seismic  sea  waves,  and  the  feeble  attraction 
of  mountains  long  since  noticed  in  geodesy.  Six  great  classes  of 


MT.  CHIMBORAZO,  NEAR  QUITO,  ALTITUDE  20,498  FEET.     (WHYMPER,   1880) 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Andean  Peaks.    Encyclopedia  Americana.  From  the  Article,  Andes,  by  special  permission 


MT.  POPOCATEPETL,  MEXICO. 
A  typical  volcano,  rising  to  an  altitude  of  about  17,000  feet.     Publications  of  the  Sierra  Club,  June,  1911. 


MT.  HUASCARAN,  IN  CENTRAL  PERU,  ALTITUDE  ABOUT  24,000  FEET. 

Photograph  and  copyright  by  Miss  Anna  S.  Peck,  National  Geographical  Magazine,  for  June,  1909. 

Used  by  special  permission  of  Miss  Peck. 


MT.  ACONCAGUA,  IN  CENTRAL  CHILE. 
The  highest  Volcano  in  the  world,  and  long  considered  the  summit  of  the  Andes. 


Altitude,  22,800  feet. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  133 

phenomena  are  thus  connected  and  shown  to  depend  on  a  single 
physical  cause. 

Volcanoes  are  only  particular  mountains,  and  it  was  noticed 
by  the  ancients  that  they  are  always  developed  in  or  near  the  sea. 
Thousands  of  eruptions  occur  in  the  sea  bottom,  but  only  occasion- 
ally do  the  new  volcanoes  reach  the  surface.  More  frequently 
the  presence  of  fire  under  the  sea  is  told  by  the  boiling  of  the  water, 
and  by  dead  fish  found  floating  on  the  surface.  Even  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  noticed  these  submarine  outbreaks,  and  their  dis- 
astrous effects  on  marine  animals. 

Volcanoes  on  land  always  break  out  near  the  shore,  in  moun- 
tain ranges  which  are  folded  sharply  upward  —  as  in  the  Andes 
and  the  Aleutian  Islands.  Such  sharp  folds  are  always  near  the 
sea,  and  their  dependence  on  it  is  also  proved  by  the  vast  prepon- 
derance of  water  vapor  which  they  emit.  According  to  Sir  Archi- 
bald Geikie,  999  in  1000  parts  of  all  the  vapor  they  emit  is  steam. 
The  pumice  which  they  blow  out  is  only  molten  rock  saturated 
with  steam  and  other  vapors,  and  afterwards  dried  up.  And  as 
pumice  underlies  every  mountain,  an  earthquake  which  opens  an 
orifice  is  sure  to  blow  out  considerable  quantities  of  this  light 
material.  When  pumice  is  ground  up  it  makes  ashes,  and  hence 
the  vast  clouds  of  dust  blown  out  of  volcanoes,  which  obscure  the 
sun  and  are  carried  over  the  earth  for  hundreds  and  even  thou- 
sands of  miles. 

As  recently  developed,  geology  has  presented  the  singular 
anomaly  of  admitting  the  existence  of  shells  and  marine  fossils 
thousands  of  feet  above  the  sea,  without  any  means  of  explaining 
how  they  got  there;  and  at  the  same  time  denying  the  bodily  ele- 
vation of  the  sea  coasts  by  earthquakes,  though  formerly  this 
doctrine  of  elevation  was  generally  accepted.  It  is  now  easy  to 
see  how  all  these  phenomena  can  be  reconciled  and  explained  by 
indicating  the  simplest  of  causes,  the  leakage  of  the  ocean  bottoms, 
which  produces  elevations  and  also  depressions. 

Not  only  do  we  prove  the  elevation  of  the  sea  coasts  by  earth- 
quakes, which  thus  push  lava  under  the  land,  from  beneath  the 


134         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

sea,  but  also  that  subsidences  may  happen  somewhat  less  fre- 
quently. The  sea  bottom  often  sinks  when  lava  is  expelled  from 
beneath  it,  so  as  to  undermine  the  support  from  below;  and  in 
like  manner  any  coast  may  subside  temporarily  if  the  subterranean 
movement  of  lava  is  such  as  to  undermine  the  foundation.  This 
has  happened  in  numerous  historical  cases,  of  which  we  shall 
mention  only  a  few. 

In  1692,  Jamaica  was  visited  by  a  terrible  earthquake,  and 
afterwards  about  three-fourths  of  Port  Royal  sank  into  the  sea, 
where  the  houses  long  afterwards  could  be  seen  beneath  the  waves. 

The  sinking  was  caused  by  a  block  of  the  earth's  crust  giving 
down  during  the  earthquake,  which  had  weakened  the  founda- 
tion. 

In  1746,  Callao,  Peru,  was  terribly  shaken  by  an  earthquake, 
and  the  coast  inundated  by  a  seismic  sea  wave,  said  to  have  been 
eighty  feet  high.  In  this  case  the  sea  bottom  sank  some  distance 
from  the  land,  and  it  carried  parts  of  the  shore  down  with  it.  Old 
Callao  was  thus  submerged  beneath  the  waves,  and  the  houses 
could  be  seen  in  the  bottom  of  the  new  harbor. 

Another  good  illustration  of  this  undermining  is  afforded  by 
the  coast  of  Pamphylia,  in  Asia  Minor.  In  the  fourth  century 
B.C.,  Alexander  the  Great  marched  his  army  along  a  road  on  the 
sea  coast  overhung  by  the  Climax  Mountains.  Strabo  says  that 
on  a  stormy  day,  when  the  waves  beat  on  the  road,  the  soldiers 
waded  to  the  middle  of  their  bodies  in  water;  at  the  present  time 
the  same  road  is  covered  by  the  water  to  a  depth  of  over  twelve 
feet,  even  when  the  weather  is  calm.  Hence  the  whole  coast  must 
have  subsided  by  about  this  amount.  The  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean present  numerous  cases  of  harbor  works  of  the  classic 
period,  some  above  and  some  below  the  present  level  of  the  sea. 

But  the  most  celebrated  case  of  subsidence  is  that  of  the 
Homeric  City  of  Helike,  which  formerly  stood  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  In  the  year  373  B.C.,  the  whole 
of  Peloponnesus  was  shaken  by  a  terrible  earthquake.  Helike  and 
Bura  were  leveled  to  the  ground,  and  great  chasms  opened  in  the 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  135 

ground  near  the  latter  place;  then  the  bed  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth 
gave  down  at  least  100  feet,  and  carried  Helike  down  with  it.  The 
inrush  of  the  mighty  sea  wave  destroyed  ten  Lacedemonian  vessels 
lying  in  the  harbor,  and  the  sea  rose  so  high  about  the  Temple  of 
Neptune  that  only  the  tops  of  the  trees  remained  above  the  water, 
though  for  centuries  afterwards  the  houses  could  still  be  seen  be- 
neath the  waves.  This  happened  when  Plato  was  fifty-four,  and 
at  the  head  of  the  Academy  in  Athens,  and  Aristotle  was  a  boy 
eleven  years  old.  The  sinking  of  Helike  greatly  perplexed  the 
wisest  of  the  Athenian  sages,  but  in  spite  of  all  their  learning  and 
acuteness  they  were  utterly  unable  to  account  for  such  a  strange 
phenomenon. 

In  the  light  of  the  above  theory  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  earth- 
quake had  pushed  lava  from  beneath  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  and  thus 
caused  the  chasms  to  open  near  Bura.  No  doubt  the  mountains 
of  Arcadia  were  badly  shaken  and  somewhat  uplifted;  then  the 
sea  bottom  gave  down,  and  Helike  disappeared  beneath  the 
waves.  Such  subsidences  are  less  frequent  than  uplifts  of  the 
coasts,  but  they  occur  occasionally  and  sometimes  cause  great 
destruction. 

Now  that  the  cause  of  earthquakes  and  sea  waves  is  perfectly 
clear,  the  people  have  a  better  means  of  protecting  themselves 
against  such  calamities  than  formerly.  No  city  on  the  coast  of  a 
deep  sea  is  ever  entirely  safe  from  earthquakes  and  sea  waves; 
but  if  good  houses  are  built,  and  a  place  for  refuge  exists,  in  case 
the  water  retires  from  the  shore  after  an  earthquake,  indicating 
that  the  sea  bottom  has  sunk,  the  danger  to  the  population  is  com- 
paratively small.  The  only  means  of  safety  is  to  flee  with  the 
utmost  speed  to  the  high  grounds,  as  the  people  in  South  America 
have  learned  to  do  by  long  and  bitter  experience.  There  is  gen- 
erally time  enough  for  escape,  before  the  wave  returns;  and  even 
the  ships  in  the  harbor  will  be  safe,  if  they  promptly  put  to  sea; 
for  in  the  open  sea,  they  can  ride  over  the  wave  without  injury, 
but  if  they  lay  in  the  harbor  they  are  sure  to  be  lost  or  washed 
inland. 


136         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Studies  of  the  phenomena  of  the  ocean  and  of  the  laws  of  the 
physical  world  by  which  the  mountains  are  formed,  owing  to  the 
secular  leakage  of  their  waters  through  the  crust  of  the  earth,  may 
thus  contribute  greatly  to  the  safety  of  mankind,  as  well  as  throw 
light  on  the  mystery  and  grandeur  connected  with  all  the  great 
secrets  of  Nature. 

In  this  brief  outline  of  the  results  embodied  in  four  scientific 
memoirs  recently  published  by  the  American  Philosophical  Society 
at  Philadelphia,  we  have  touched  only  upon  those  topics  which 
seemed  likely  to  be  of  most  popular  interest.  The  new  theory  has 
been  adopted  with  enthusiasm  in  the  highest  circles  of  the  scientific 
world;  and  hence  the  results  here  given  may  be  considered  as 
demonstrated.  Since  the  death  of  Helmholtz,  of  Berlin,  1894, 
Professor  Arrhenius,  of  Stockholm,  has  gradually  taken  the  fore- 
most place  among  the  physicists  of  Continental  Europe.  He  is 
one  of  those  who  have  adopted  the  new  theory  from  the  first. 
Among  others  may  be  mentioned  Professor  Suess,  of  Vienna,  the 
most  eminent  geologist  in  Europe,  and  the  veteran  physicists,  Lord 
Kelvin  and  Sir  Wm.  Huggins,  two  of  the  most  illustrious  ex- 
presidents  of  the  Royal  Society. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

1913. 

FURTHER    CONSIDERATIONS    ON    THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE   HIMALAYA 
MOUNTAINS  AND  THE  PLATEAU  OF  TIBET.* 
By  T.  J.  J.  SEE. 

§1.    Introductory  Remarks. 

E  four  memoirs  dealing  with  the  cause  of  earthquakes, 
mountain  formation,  and  kindred  phenomena  connected 
with  the  physics  of  the  earth,  which  the  writer  had  the  honor 
to  communicate  to  this  Society  in  the  years  1906-08,  and  have 
published  in  the  Proceedings,  have  laid  the  foundations  of  a  new 
theory  of  the  physics  of  the  earth's  crust.  The  new  theory  already 
is  widely  adopted  by  the  most  eminent  investigators,  and  the  pur- 
pose of  the  present  paper  is  merely  to  add  a  final  confirmation  of 
some  interest. 

During  the  past  five  years  the  writer's  attention  has  been  so 
fully  occupied  with  the  problems  of  Cosmogony  that  the  problems 
relating  to  Geogony,  or  the  formation  of  the  earth,  have  been  left 
largely  in  abeyance;  and  yet  some  new  light  has  been  shed  on 
them,  especially  by  the  researches  showing  that  the  lunar  craters 
are  due  to  impact,  and  thus  in  no  way  similar  to  terrestrial  vol- 
canoes as  was  so  long  believed. 

Quite  recently  it  was  thought  worth  while  to  re-examine  the 
phenomena  of  the  earth's  crust,  in  the  light  of  the  New  Science  of 
Cosmogony  resulting  from  the  researches  of  the  past  five  years. 
For  in  studying  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  Himalayas  and  the 
plateau  of  Tibet  some  important  considerations  were  brought  out 
that  were  not  included  in  my  former  papers,  and  thus  it  seems 

*  Presented  to  the  American  Philosophical  Society  held  at  Philadelphia,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Annual  General  Meeting,  April  17-19,  1913. 


138         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

advisable  to  place  them  on  record  as  confirming  and  extending  my 
former  investigations. 

Moreover,  the  subject  of  the  origin  of  the  Himalayas  is  attract- 
ing attention  abroad.  Apparently  without  knowledge  of  my  work 
Colonel  Sidney  G.  Burrard,  R.  E.,  F.  R.  S.,  Surveyor-General  of 
India,  has  been  devoting  considerable  attention  to  the  subject 
in  'Professional  Paper  No.  12,  Survey  of  India,'  a  summary 
of  which  is  given  in  The  Observatory  for  November,  1912, 
p.  413: 

"It  may  be  remembered  that  several  years  ago  Col.  Burrard 
showed  that  there  appears  to  be  a  subterranean  mass  of  great 
density  lying  across  India  in  mean  latitude  23°  north.  He  now 
shows  that  the  observations  indicate  the  existence  of  a  line  of  low 
density  between  this  subterranean  mass  and  the  Himalayas,  and 
suggests  that  there  was,  or  is,  one  long  crack  in  the  earth's  sub- 
crust  extending  from  Sumatra  round  the  Arrakan  coast  across 
Northern  India,  through  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Mediterranean, 
traces  of  which  are  seen  in  the  parallel  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Oman 
and  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  crack  has  been  filled  with  alluvial 
deposit  across  Northern  India  and  in  other  places,  but  the  Hima- 
layas remain  as  the  result  of  the  rift  in  the  earth,  a  great  mass  of 
matter  having  been  pushed  northward.  It  has  been  supposed  by 
others  that  the  Himalayan  range  was  formed  by  the  southward 
advance  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Asiastic  continent  on  to  the 
Indo-African  tableland." 

The  idea  here  developed  by  Colonel  Burrard,  including  especi- 
ally the  light  material  under  northern  India,  and  the  pushing  of  the 
Himalayas  northward,  is  so  very  similar  to  that  developed  in  my 
memoirs  that  it  must  be  regarded  as  an  independent  confirmation 
of  the  theory  that  the  mountains  are  formed  by  the  sea.  And  as 
this  conclusion  applies  to  the  greatest  and  most  intricate  range  in 
the  world,  the  external  relations  of  which  are  not  entirely  simple, 
I  deem  it  worthy  of  attention. 

Finally,  it  may  be  noted  that  much  interest  has  been  awak- 
ened in  this  subject  in  England  and  other  countries  of  Europe. 


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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  139 

The  new  theory  already  is  widely  taught  in  the  schools  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  Continent;  and  in  his  new  work  The  Growth  of  a 
Planet,  (The  MacMillan  Co.,  New  York,  1911),  the  London  geo- 
physicist  Mr.  Edwin  Sharpe  Grew,  M.  A.,  concedes  that  the 
author's  reasoning  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  is  unanswerable,  and 
finally  says: 

"Dr.  See  has  arranged  his  facts  with  great  ingenuity,  and  the 
presentation  of  his  case  is  the  most  powerful  argument  which  has 
ever  been  advanced  in  favor  of  the  view  held  since  the  days  of 
Strabo,  Aristotle  or  Pliny,  that  the  expansive  force  of  steam  is  the 
prime  cause  of  volcanic  and  seismic  disturbances." 

In  view  of  this  general  interest  a  few  additional  considera- 
tions on  the  origin  of  the  Himalayas  maybe  important.  For  after 
careful  reflection  I  regard  the  Himalayas  as  the  crucial  test;  and 
as  the  theory  is  triumphantly  verified  by  a  more  complete  study 
of  this  great  range,  it  must  hereafter  be  regarded  as  firmly  and 
permanently  established. 

§2.  The  Volumes  of  the  Plateaus  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  of 
the  Andes,  and  of  the  Himalayas. 

In  the  four  Memoirs  included  in  the  Proceedings  of  this  Society 
for  1906-08,  the  new  theory  of  mountain  formation  is  treated  with 
considerable  detail,  but  some  numerical  relations  between  the 
plateaus  above  mentioned  are  worthy  of  more  attention  than  they 
have  yet  received. 

The  Pacific  plateau  of  North  America  is  of  variable  width, 
being  less  than  500  miles  wide  in  Mexico,  and  perhaps  600  miles 
wide  in  Canada,  but  from  1,000  to  1,500  miles  wide  in  the  United 
States.  Perhaps  750  miles  wide  would  be  a  good  average  estimate 
of  the  whole  plateau.  And  the  height  may  be  taken  as  approxima- 
tely 5,000  feet,  or  a  mile  above  the  sea.  These  average  figures 
will  satisfactorily  represent  the  Pacific  plateau  in  North  America. 
It  is  noticed  also  in  many  places  that  where  the  plateau  is  broadest 
it  is  of  less  average  height;  but  where  it  is  narrower  the  height  is 
somewhat  increased. 


140         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

In  the  Andes  the  same  principles  prevail.  The  plateau  is 
highest  in  the  region  of  Lake  Titicaca,  where  the  elevation  is  over 
12,600  feet,  or  2.5  miles.  The  width  here  does  not  exceed  300 
miles.  Further  north,  near  Quito,  it  narrows  up,  and  is  not  over 
half  this  width;  but  in  Columbia  it  again  spreads  out  to  a  width 
of  300  or  400  miles,  but  is  only  about  6,000  or  8,000  feet  in  height, 
scarcely  more  than  half  that  along  the  more  southern  portion  of 
the  Andes. 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  height  decreases  from  12,600  feet 
near  Lake  Titicaca,  to  11,000  feet  in  central  Peru,  and  perhaps 
10,000  feet  at  Quito;  while  south  of  Titicaca  the  height  does  not 
decrease  appreciably  till  central  Chile  is  reached,  after  which  it 
falls  steadily  till  the  continent  sinks  beneath  the  sea  at  Cape 
Horn. 

Now  it  is  remarkable  that  if  we  take  a  typical  section  of  the 
highest  and  broadest  part  of  the  Andean  plateau,  2.5  miles  high 
by  300  miles  wide,  the  numerical  product  of  width  by  height  in 
miles  is  750.  And  the  Rocky  Mountain  plateau,  one  mile  high 
and  750  miles  wide,  gives  the  same  product,  750  square  miles. 

To  be  sure  this  product  can  be  varied  considerably  by  taking 
different  sections  of  the  plateaus  of  North  and  South  America, 
but  all  in  all  this  average  estimate  appears  to  be  a  fair  one.  For 
in  the  article  Andes,  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  9th  edition, 
Sir  Archibald  Geikie  estimates  the  bulk  of  the  Andes  as  of  the 
average  width  of  100  miles,  and  the  height  13,000  feet.  The 
present  estimate  gives  greater  width  but  somewhat  less  height. 

On  the  whole,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  average  sectional 
area  in  the  Andes  is  somewhat  less  than  that  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  plateau;  for  between  Colorado  and  the  Pacific  coast 
the  width  is  about  1,500  miles,  and  the  average  height  about  a 
mile.  The  plateau  is  much  narrower  in  Canada,  and  very  much 
narrower  in  Mexico,  practically  disappearing  entirely  in  Central 
America  and  Panama.  Thus  at  one  point  in  the  United  States 
the  sectional  contents  may  be  twice  that  in  the  Andes;  yet  the 
average  sectional  volume  for  the  Pacific  plateau  of  North  America 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  141 

is  not  much  greater  than  the  larger  sectional  volumes  for  the 
plateau  of  the  Andes. 

The  significance  of  this  equality  in  the  sections  of  the  two 
plateaus  lies  in  the  fact  that  both  are  the  products  of  the  common 
Pacific  Ocean,  one  in  the  northern,  the  other  in  the  southern  conti- 
nent. The  new  theory  does  not  require  that  the  volumes  should 
be  exactly  equal,  but  it  implies  that  they  should  be  comparable, 
and  such  is  the  fact  in  a  very  striking  degree. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  plateau  of  Tibet,  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  Andes.  The  height  of  western  Tibet  is  about  15,000 
feet,  while  eastern  Tibet  has  an  elevation  of  only  11,000  feet.  The 
breadth  also  varies  from  some  200  miles  on  the  west  to  500  miles 
at  the  eastern  extremity  (General  Strachey,  Article  Himalayas, 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  9th  edition). 

Accordingly,  if  we  take  the  wider  part  of  western  Tibet  as 
having  a  sectional  height  of  three  miles  and  a  breadth  of  250  miles, 
the  product  in  miles  is  750,  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  Andes  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  Further  east  in  Tibet  the  width  may  be 
500  miles,  and  the  height  about  two  miles,  which  gives  a  sectional 
product  of  1,000.  This  is  larger  than  the  average  Andean  prod- 
uct adopted  above,  and  more  like  that  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
plateau  west  of  Colorado. 

But  the  circumstance  that  the  sectional  volumes  of  three 
great  plateaus  in  the  three  leading  continents  of  the  globe  should 
all  be  so  nearly  equal  is  fully  as  impressive  a  fact  as  the  related 
fact  that  all  of  these  plateaus  should  overlook  the  same  great  ocean 
by  which  they  were  elevated. 

Altogether  the  similarity  in  the  volumes  of  sections  of  these 
three  greatest  plateaus  is  so  striking  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  deny 
that  it  constitutes  practically  a  mathematical  demonstration  that 
these  plateaus  were  uplifted  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  relation- 
ships here  brought  out  as  to  the  volumes  of  these  plateaus,  in 
addition  to  the  situations  about  the  Pacific  Ocean,  could  not  well 
be  accounted  for  by  chance,  even  if  we  did  not  know  the  cause  of 
mountain  formation.  But  as  the  cause  of  mountain  formation 


142        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

is  fully  understood,  the  cause  which  has  built  the  plateaus  is  also 
clearly  shown,  and  it  is  impossible  to  consider  any  other  explana- 
tion than  that  here  outlined. 

§3.  General  Law  that  where  a  Continuous  Plateau  increases 
in  width,  it  decreases  in  elevation. 

This  law  doubtless  results  from  the  process  of  uplifting  by 
which  the  mountains  and  plateaus  have  been  raised  above  the 
sea.  For  example,  in  case  of  the  continuous  plateau  crowned 
with  mountain  crests  which  surrounds  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  Cape 
Horn  to  Alaska,  and  then  extends  down  the  south  eastern  shores 
of  Asia,  runs  westward  through  India,  and  down  the  east  shore  of 
Africa  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  it  is  observed  in  each  of  the  four 
continents  traversed  that  where  the  plateau  is  highest  it  usually 
narrows  in  width,  and  vice  versa. 

Thus  we  have  seen  that  the  plateau  of  the  Andes  is  high  in 
Chile,  Bolivia,  Peru  and  Ecuador,  but  in  Columbia  falls  to  about 
half  its  former  level,  but  expands  to  about  double  width.  This 
expansion  of  the  width  of  the  plateau  in  Columbia  is  character- 
istic of  plateau  formation  in  general.  There  are  slight  exceptions 
to  the  rule,  but  the  conformity  to  it  is  much  more  noticeable. 
For  example,  at  Titicaca  the  width  is  about  250  miles,  but  some 
distance  north  of  this  region  the  Andean  plateau  seems  to  narrow 
up  till  the  width  scarcely  exceeds  150  miles,  in  Ecuador;  but  it 
then  spreads  out  again  as  the  range  enters  Columbia. 

It  is  not  easy  to  explain  this  narrowing  of  the  range,  unless 
the  great  width  and  great  height  at  Titicaca  are  due  to  the  indenta- 
tion of  the  coast  at  this  point,  giving  uplifting  forces  from  both 
directions,  at  the  same  time.  This  explanation  seems  to  be  well 
founded,  and  is  confirmed  by  the  corresponding  effect  north  of 
central  India,  where  the  plateau  of  Tibet  reaches  its  maximum 
elevation. 

Accordingly,  we  probably  should  conclude,  that  the  width  of 
the  Andean  plateau  is  normally  less  than  at  Lake  Titicaca,  and 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  143 

the  width  there  is  due  to  a  combination  of  forces  from  the  two  lines 
of  coast,  meeting  at  an  angle  of  about  135°.  It  is  therefore  a  fact 
in  South  America  that  wherever  the  plateau  is  widest,  it  decreases 
in  elevation,  as  in  Columbia. 

In  this  problem  of  uplift,  however,  something  depends  on  the 
depth  and  width  of  the  adjacent  elevating  ocean,  and  thus  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  variety  should  result.  Since  the  adjacent  sea  is 
not  of  uniform  effectiveness,  we  should  expect  minor  deviations 
from  the  law;  but  obviously  they  should  not  be  too  pronounced. 

In  North  America,  the  same  general  law  holds  true.  Where- 
ever  the  plateau  is  narrow,  as  in  central  Mexico,  the  elevation  is 
great;  but  where  it  is  wide,  the  elevation  generally  is  lower.  There 
are  of  course  some  exceptions  to  the  rule,  but  it  generally  holds 
true. 

For  example,  along  the  Rocky  Mountain  range  the  highest 
part  of  the  plateau  probably  is  in  Colorado,  where  the  whole 
Pacific  plateau  is  widest;  but  this  only  indicates  that  the  forces 
which  raised  such  high  mountains  as  Pike's  Peak,  also  raised  a 
high  plateau  in  the  general  region,  independent  of  the  width  of 
the  plateau  afterwards  elevated  from  the  sea.  And  so  on  gene- 
rally. 

The  rule  that  the  plateau  decreases  in  height  when  it  increases 
in  width,  must  be  understood  to  apply  to  a  region  of  not  too  great 
width.  For  when  the  width  is  very  great,  we  have  rather  a  series 
of  plateaus  added  together  side  by  side  than  a  single  one;  and  the 
final  result  is  a  composite  effect,  one  plateau  section  fitting  onto 
another,  and  the  whole  series  of  sections  running  together  as  an 
unbroken  embankment  of  variable  height. ' 

In  view  of  these  considerations,  a  plateau  so  wide  as  that 
between  Colorado  and  California  is  really  a  series  of  plateaus,  each 
of  unusual  width  at  this  point,  and  the  whole  effect  therefore  a 
very  broad  compound  plateau.  The  entire  Pacific  plateau  is  the 
cumulative  work  of  the  ocean,  done  in  successive  sections;  and 
as  the  ocean  is  deepest  opposite  California,  the  uplift  naturally 
has  been  greatest  in  this  part,  which  also  developed  the  Sierra 


144         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Nevada  Mountains,  and  at  a  still  earlier  stage  the  Wasatch  range 
in  Utah. 

The  history  of  the  building  of  the  Pacific  plateau  from  Colo- 
rado to  California  is  too  long  to  be  described  here,  but  these  hints 
on  the  method  by  which  it  was  elevated  give  some  idea  of  the 
growth  of  the  continent  westward  from  the  ancient  border  which 
was  east  of  the  present  Rocky  Mountain  range. 

§4.  The  Cause  of  the  great  height  of  the  plateaus  of  western 
Tibet  and  Titicaca. 

Since  writing  the  Memoirs  of  1906-08,  I  have  had  occasion 
to  re-examine  the  relationship  of  the  great  mountains  to  the 
plateaus,  and  of  the  plateaus  to  the  sea,  with  the  result  of  con- 
firming in  the  most  conclusive  manner  the  uplift  of  the  plateaus 
by  the  ocean.  It  is  found  that  the  plateau  of  western  Tibet  has 
almost  exactly  the  relationship  to  the  ancient  sea  valley  formerly 
covering  northern  India,  that  the  plateau  of  Titicaca  now  has  to 
the  border  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

If  we  examine  a  good  map  of  northern  India,  we  shall  find 
not  only  that  the  Indus  and  Ganges  now  flow  in  the  ancient  sea 
valley  formerly  depressed  below  the  waves,  and  now  elevated  less 
than  1,000  feet  above  the  ocean;  but  also  that  this  valley  made 
a  sharp  bend  in  north  central  India.  It  has  the  form  of  the  Greek 
letter  lambda,  with  the  Ganges  leg  of  the  lambda  by  far  the  longest, 
and  the  included  angle  about  105°. 

If  the  lava  expelled  from  beneath  this  ancient  sea  valley  came 
from  two  directions,  at  such  an  angle,  the  forces  of  uplift  naturally 
would  accumulate  at  the  head  of  the  sea  valley.  For  they  would 
come  from  the  southeast  and  also  from  the  southwest,  as  well  as 
from  the  south;  and  the  result  of  compounding  these  forces,  would 
be  magnified  forces  of  unusual  intensity,  directed  to  the  elevation 
of  the  Himalayas  of  north  central  India.  This  is  exactly  what 
has  taken  place;  and  hence  we  see  why  the  plateau  of  Tibet  is  so 
high  in  the  western  part  of  that  great  "roof  of  the  world." 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  145 

If  now  we  turn  to  the  region  of  Lake  Titicaca,  in  South  Amer- 
ica, we  find  an  exactly  similar  relative  situation.  The  coasts  from 
the  south  and  northwest  meet  at  an  angle  of  some  135°;  and  the 
forces  producing  the  uplift  have  come  from  the  two  directions,  and 
also  from  the  west.  The  result  has  been  a  convergence  of  the 
forces  tending  to  produce  an  uplift;  but  as  the  angle  of  135°  is 
less  acute  than  in  northern  India,  where  the  angle  is  105°,  it 
is  not  remarkable  that  the  plateau  of  Titicaca  is  less  elevated 
than  that  of  western  Tibet,  where  the  forces  converged  more 
powerfully  and  were  so  compounded  as  to  produce  the  maximum 
elevation. 

It  certainly  is  not  accidental  that  these  two  highest  plateaus 
of  the  world  stand  in  similar  centers  of  converging  forces  directed 
from  the  ocean;  and  that  the  higher  plateau  of  western  Tibet  has 
the  forces  converging  at  the  smaller  angle  of  105°,  and  therefore 
compounding  more  effectively  to  produce  a  greater  power  of  uplift, 
for  equal  energy  directed  from  the  side  of  the  sea. 

And  as  the  observed  phenomena  confirm  the  theory  in  every 
detail,  one  finds  it  very  difficult  to  believe  that  any  other  cause 
has  shaped  these  stupendous  uplifts  of  the  earth's  crust. 

It  is  also  easy  to  see  why  the  height  of  the  plateau  of  Tibet 
is  less  towards  the  east,  where  the  elevation  is  only  11,000  feet. 
For  in  the  eastern  part  only  a  side  pressure  was  available  for  the 
uplift,  and  the  forces  of  elevation  did  not  converge  towards  a 
point,  as  in  western  Tibet  and  near  Lake  Titicaca,  in  Bolivia. 

§5.  Some  phenomena  connected  with  the  great  earthquake  at 
Arica,  August  13, 1868. 

One  of  the  most  important  means  of  judging  of  earthquake 
phenomena  is  the  evidence  afforded  by  eye-witnesses;  and  this 
becomes  especially  valuable  when  we  know  the  nature  of  earth- 
quake processes,  because  it  then  becomes  possible  to  see  in  the 
descriptions  given  by  eye-witnesses  new  meaning. 

Accordingly,  we  add  a  brief  account  of  the  terrible  earthquake 
at  Arica,  August  13,  1868,  which  was  a  continuation  of  the  move- 


146         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

ments  directly  concerned  with  the  uplift  of  the  plateau  of  Titicaca. 
For  it  was  a  survival  of  the  ancient  movements  which  brought 
about  this  elevation,  and  as  the  region  is  still  near  the  sea,  it  is  of 
special  interest,  because  it  bears  on  the  elevation  of  the  plateaus 
of  the  Himalayas,  now  further  inland. 

In  his  "Light  Science  for  Leisure  Hours,"  p.  199,  the  late 
Professor  R.  A.  Proctor  describes  the  havoc  wrought  by  the  earth- 
quake at  the  neighboring  town  of  Arequipa  as  follows: 

"At  five  minutes  past  five  (P.M.)  an  earthquake  shock  was 
experienced,  which,  though  severe,  seems  to  have  worked  very 
little  mischief.  Half  a  minute  later,  however,  a  terrible  noise  was 
heard  beneath  the  earth;  a  second  shock  more  violent  than  the 
first  was  felt;  and  then  began  a  swaying  motion,  gradually  in- 
creasing in  intensity.  In  the  course  of  the  first  minute  this 
motion  had  become  so  violent  that  the  inhabitants  ran  in  terror 
out  of  their  houses  into  the  streets  and  squares.  In  the  next  two 
minutes  the  swaying  movement  had  so  increased  that  the  more 
lightly  built  houses  were  cast  to  the  ground,  and  the  flying  people 
could  scarcely  keep  their  feet.  'And  now/  says  Von  Tschudi, 
'there  followed  during  two  or  three  minutes  a  terrible  scene.  The 
swaying  motion  which  had  hitherto  prevailed  changed  into  fierce 
vertical  upheaval.  The  subterranean  roaring  increased  in  the 
most  terrifying  manner;  then  were  heard  the  heart-piercing  shrieks 
of  the  wretched  people,  the  bursting  of  walls,  the  crashing  fall  of 
houses  and  churches,  while  over  all  rolled  thick  clouds  of  a  yellow- 
ish-black dust,  which,  had  they  been  poured  forth  many  minutes 
longer,  would  have  suffocated  thousands.'  Although  the  shocks 
had  lasted  but  a  few  minutes,  the  whole  town  was  destroyed.  Not 
one  building  remained  uninjured,  and  there  were  few  which  did 
not  lie  in  shapeless  heaps  of  ruins." 

This  description  was  drawn  for  the  phenomena  observed  at 
Arequipa,  but  that  it  would  serve  equally  well  for  Arica  is  suffi- 
ciently indicated  by  the  accompanying  photographs  of  the  town 
as  it  was  before  and  after  the  earthquake.  A  more  terrible  record 
of  desolation  could  hardly  be  imagined. 


THE  CITY  OF  ARICA,  PERU,  AS  IT  APPEARED  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  THE  EARTHQUAKE 
AND  SEA  WAVE  OF  AUGUST  13,  1868. 

From  photographs  in  the  possession  of  Mrs.  E.  V.  Cutts,  of  Mare  Island,  California. 


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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  147 

With  this  brief  but  striking  description  of  the  earthquake,  we 
may  now  turn  to  the  seismic  sea  wave  at  Arica,  and  here  I  shall 
again  quote  Proctor's  account,  which  is  based  on  the  elaborate 
technical  memoir  prepared  by  Professor  F.  Von  Hochstetter  in  the 
Sitzungsberichte  of  the  Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1868,  Vol. 
LVIII,  Abth.  II.  Proctor's  account  runs  thus: 

"At  Arica  the  sea  wave  produced  even  more  destructive 
effects  than  had  been  caused  by  the  earthquake.  About  twenty 
minutes  after  the  first  earth-shock,  (i.e.  5:25  P.M.)  the  sea  was 
seen  to  retire,  as  if  about  to  leave  the  shores  wholly  dry;  but 
presently  its  waters  returned  with  tremendous  force.  A  mighty 
wave,  whose  length  seemed  immeasurable,  was  seen  advancing 
like  a  dark  wall  upon  the  unfortunate  town,  a  large  part  of  which 
was  overwhelmed  by  it.  Two  ships,  the  Peruvian  corvette '  Amer- 
ica' and  the  United  States  'double-ender'  *  Wateree,'  were  carried 
nearly  half  a  mile  to  the  north  of  Arica,  beyond  the  railroad  which 
runs  to  Tacna,  and  there  left  stranded  high  and  dry.  This  enor- 
mous wave  was  considered  by  the  English  vice-consul  at  Arica  to 
have  been  fully  fifty  feet  in  height. 

"At  Chala,  three  such  waves  swept  in  after  the  first  shocks  of 
earthquake.  They  overflowed  nearly  the  whole  of  the  town,  the 
sea  passing  more  than  half  a  mile  beyond  its  usual  limits. 

"At  Islay  and  Iquique  similar  phenomena  were  manifested. 
At  the  former  town  the  sea  flowed  in  no  less  than  five  times,  and 
each  time  with  greater  force.  Afterwards  the  motion  gradually 
diminished,  but  even  an  hour  and  a  half  after  the  commencement 
of  this  strange  disturbance,  the  waves  still  ran  forty  feet  above 
the  ordinary  level.  At  Iquique,  the  people  beheld  the  inrushing 
wave  whilst  it  was  still  a  great  way  off.  A  dark  blue  mass  of  water, 
some  fifty  feet  in  height,  was  seen  sweeping  in  upon  the  town  with 
inconceivable  rapidity.  An  island  lying  before  the  harbour  was 
completely  submerged  by  the  great  wave,  which  still  came  rushing 
on,  black  with  the  mud  and  slime  it  had  swept  from  the  sea  bot- 
tom. Those  who  witnessed  its  progress  from  the  upper  balconies 
of  their  houses,  and  presently  saw  its  black  mass  rushing  close 


148         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

beneath  their  feet,  looked  on  their  safety  as  a  miracle.  Many 
buildings  were  indeed  washed  away,  and  in  the  low  lying  parts  of 
town  there  was  a  terrible  loss  of  life.  After  passing  far  inland  the 
wave  slowly  returned  seawards,  and  strangely  enough,  the  sea, 
which  elsewhere  heaved  and  tossed  for  hours  after  the  first  great 
wave  had  swept  over  it,  here  came  soon  to  rest. 

"At  Callao  a  yet  more  singular  instance  was  afforded  of  the 
effect  which  circumstances  may  have  upon  the  motion  of  the  sea 
after  a  great  earthquake  has  disturbed  it.  In  former  earthquakes 
Callao  has  suffered  terribly  from  the  effects  of  the  great  sea  wave. 
In  fact,  on  two  occasions  the  whole  town  has  been  destroyed,  and 
nearly  all  its  inhabitants  have  been  drowned,  through  the  inrush 
of  precisely  such  waves  as  flowed  into  the  ports  of  Arica  and  Chala. 
But  upon  this  occasion  the  center  of  subterranean  disturbance 
must  have  been  so  situated  that  either  the  wave  was  diverted  from 
Callao,  or  more  probably  two  waves  reached  Callao  from  different 
sources  and  at  different  times,  so  that  the  two  undulations  partly 
counteracted  each  other.  Certain  it  is  that  although  the  water 
retreated  strangely  from  the  coast  near  Callao,  insomuch  that  a 
wide  tract  of  the  sea-bottom  was  uncovered,  there  was  no  inrush- 
ing  wave  comparable  with  those  described  above.  The  sea  after- 
wards rose  and  fell  in  an  irregular  manner,  a  circumstance  con- 
firming the  supposition  that  the  disturbance  was  caused  by  two 
distinct  oscillations.  Six  hours  after  the  occurrence  of  the  earth- 
shock,  the  double  oscillations  seem  for  awhile  to  have  worked 
themselves  into  unison,  for  at  this  time  three  considerable  waves 
rolled  in  upon  the  town.  But  clearly  these  waves  must  not  be 
compared  with  those  which  in  other  instances  had  made  their 
appearance  within  half  an  hour  of  the  earth- throes.  There  is 
little  reason  to  doubt  that  if  the  separate  oscillations  had  rein- 
forced each  other  earlier,  Callao  would  have  been  completely  de- 
stroyed. As  it  was,  a  considerable  amount  of  mischief  was  effected ; 
but  the  motion  of  the  sea  presently  became  irregular  again,  and  so 
continued  until  the  morning  of  August  14,  when  it  began  to  ebb 
with  some  regularity.  But  during  the  14th  there  were  occasional 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.  SEE  149 

renewals  of  the  irregular  motion,  and  several  days  elapsed  before 
the  regular  ebb  and  flow  of  the  sea  were  resumed." 

In  this  excellent  account  of  the  great  sea  wave  at  Arica, 
August  13, 1868,  Proctor  makes  no  allusion  to  the  U.S.S.  Fredonia, 
which  was  lying  at  anchor  with  the  Water ee;  and  we  add  therefore 
that  the  Fredonia  is  reported  to  have  been  capsized  as  the  wave 
advanced,  and  nothing  was  ever  again  heard  of  her,  all  the  officers 
and  crew  having  been  lost  with  the  wreck  of  the  vessel. 

The  Water  ee  was  but  little  injured,  and  afterwards  served  as  a 
hotel.  The  picture  of  the  stranded  Water  ee  here  reproduced  was 
made  by  an  officer  who  visited  the  scene  sometime  after  the  dis- 
aster. This  valuable  historic  photograph  has  been  preserved  by 
Mrs.  E.  V.  Cutts  of  Mare  Island,  to  whom  the  author  is  indebted 
for  this  impressive  illustration  of  the  effects  of  this  great  sea  wave. 
The  previous  illustrations  show  the  city  of  Arica  before  this  earth- 
quake, and  the  mere  wreckage  which  remained  after  the  inunda- 
tion of  the  sea. 

In  an  earlier  passage  than  that  above  cited,  Proctor  quotes 
the  description  of  an  eye-witness,  which  tells  of  the  movements 
of  the  ships: 

"The  agent  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  whose 
house  had  been  destroyed  by  the  earth-shock,  saw  the  great  sea 
wave  while  he  was  flying  towards  the  hills.  He  writes:  *  While 
passing  towards  the  hills,  with  the  earth  shaking,  a  great  cry  went 
up  to  heaven.  The  sea  had  retired.  On  clearing  the  town,  I 
looked  back  and  saw  that  the  vessels  were  being  carried  irresistibly 
seawards.  In  a  few  minutes  the  sea  stopped,  and  then  arose  a 
mighty  wave  fifty  feet  high,  and  came  in  with  a  fearful  rush, 
carrying  everything  before  it  in  terrible  majesty.  The  whole  of 
the  shipping  came  back,  speeding  towards  inevitable  doom.  In 
a  few  minutes  all  was  completed  —  every  vessel  was  either  on 
shore  or  bottom  upwards/  " 


150         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

§6.  Pratt' s  reasoning  on  the  density  of  the  matter  under  the 
ocean,  plains  and  mountains,  and  its  application  to  India  and  the 
Himalayas. 

Pratt's  reasoning  in  regard  to  the  density  of  the  matter  in 
and  beneath  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  its  bearing  on  the  new 
theory  of  earthquakes  is  described  in  my  paper  on  "The  Cause 
of  Earthquakes,  Mountain  Formation  and  Kindred  Phenomena 
Connected  with  the  Physics  of  the  Earth,"  published  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings  of  this  Society  for  1906,  pp.  344-346.  His  main  con- 
clusion is  stated  thus: 

"This  (deflection  of  the  plumb  line)  shows  that  the  effect  of 
variations  of  density  in  the  crust  must  be  very  great  in  order  to 
bring  about  this  near  compensation.  In  fact  the  density  of  the 
crust  beneath  the  mountains  must  be  less  than  that  below  the 
plains,  and  still  less  than  that  below  the  ocean-bed."  (Pratt, 
Figure  of  the  Earth,  3d  edition,  Art.  137,  pp.  134-135). 

Again: 

"The  conclusion  at  which  we  have  arrived  in  Article  137,  that 
the  parts  of  the  crust  below  the  more  elevated  regions  are  of  less 
density,  and  the  parts  beneath  the  depressed  regions  in  the  ocean 
are  of  greater  density  than  the  average  portions  of  the  surface, 
seems  to  bear  additional  testimony  to  the  fluid  theory.  For  it 
shows,  that  notwithstanding  the  varied  surface,  seen  at  present 
in  mountains  and  oceans,  the  amount  of  matter  in  a  vertical  prism 
drawn  down  at  various  places  to  any  given  spheroidal  stratum  is 
the  same,  although  its  length  varies  from  place  to  place  as  the 
earth's  contour  varies/'  (idem,  p.  162). 

This  subject  of  the  density  of  the  matter  hidden  from  our 
view  beneath  the  crust  of  the  earth  has  also  been  discussed  by  the 
late  Professor  Henri  Poincare,  in  an  address  on  French  Geodesy, 
translated  by  Professor  George  Bruce  Halstead,  and  published  in 
the  Popular  Science  Monthly  for  February,  1913.  The  eminent 
French  geometer  reasons  as  follows: 

"But  these  deep-lying  rocks  we  cannot  reach  exercise  from 
afar  their  attraction  which  operates  upon  the  pendulum  and 


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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  151 

deforms  the  terrestrial  spheroid.  Geodesy  can  therefore  weigh 
them  from  afar,  so  to  speak,  and  tell  us  of  their  distribution.  Thus 
will  it  make  us  really  see  those  regions  which  Jules  Verne  only 
showed  us  in  imagination. 

"This  is  not  an  empty  illusion.  M.  Faye,  comparing  all  the 
measurements,  has  reached  a  result  well  calculated  to  surprise  us. 
Under  the  oceans,  in  the  depths,  are  rocks  of  very  great  density; 
under  the  continents,  on  the  contrary,  are  empty  spaces. 

"New  observations  will  modify  perhaps  the  details  of  these 
conclusions. 

"In  any  case,  our  venerated  dean  has  shown  us  where  to 
search  and  what  the  geodesist  may  teach  the  geologist,  desirous 
of  knowing  the  interior  constitution  of  the  earth,  and  even  the 
thinker  wishing  to  speculate  upon  the  past  and  the  origin  of  this 
planet." 

From  this  extract  it  will  be  seen  that  the  most  eminent  French 
authorities  recognize  the  conclusions  first  formulated  by  Pratt 
over  half  a  century  ago.  It  only  remains  to  consider  the  applica- 
tion of  Pratt 's  theorem  to  the  Himalayas  and  the  plateau  of  Tibet. 

If,  as  Pratt  says,  "the  density  of  the  crust  beneath  the  moun- 
tains must  be  less  than  that  below  the  plains,  and  still  less  than 
that  below  the  ocean  bed,"  it  is  very  difficult  to  see  how  this  could 
have  come  about  except  by  the  greater  uplift  of  the  mountains, 
by  the  injection  of  more  light  material  beneath,  while  a  less  amount 
of  such  material  has  been  injected  under  the  plains,  and  scarcely 
any  has  remained  under  the  ocean  bed,  because  it  tends  to  work 
out  by  the  path  of  least  resistance.  This  is  the  only  explanation 
which  satisfies  the  observed  phenomena,  and  conforms  to  the 
known  fact  that  the  mountains  and  plateaus  are  uplifted  by  the 
expulsion  of  matter  from  beneath  the  sea,  in  world-shaking  earth- 
quakes. Thus  the  known  facts  of  geodesy  as  respects  the  Hima- 
layas are  fully  explained.  And  the  explanation  rests  on  principles 
established  by  a  variety  of  mutually  confirmatory  observations. 


152         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

§7.    Defects  in  the  Doctrine  of  Isostacy  as  commonly  stated. 

The  doctrine  of  Isostacy  as  commonly  stated  is  vitiated  by  a 
serious  if  not  fatal  error;  and  it  is  necessary  to  overcome  this 
defect  if  the  doctrine  is  to  hold  its  place  in  modern  thought.  In 
Science  of  February  10,  1911,  Professor  J.  F.  Hay  ford  presents  a 
paper  based  on  the  valuable  data  he  obtained  in  the  work  of  the 
U.S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  deduced  from  seven  hundred  and 
sixty-five  series  of  astronomical  observations  at  eighty-nine  sta- 
tions in  the  United  States.  The  causes  assigned,  however,  are  so 
inadequate  that  it  seems  worth  while  to  point  out  the  defects  in 
his  reasoning,  which  is  as  follows: 

"Columns  A  and  B  have  been  assumed  to  contain  equal  masses. 
There  is  complete  isostatic  compensation.  The  pressures  at  the 
bases  of  the  two  columns  are  equal,  and  at  any  less  depth,  X,  the 
pressure  is  greater  in  A  than  in  B.  Now  assume  that  in  the  nor- 
mal course  of  events  a  large  amount  of  material  is  being  eroded 
from  the  high  surface  of  column  A  and  deposited  on  the  low  sur- 
face of  column  B.  After  this  erosion  has  been  in  progress  for  some 
time  the  isostatic  compensation  will  no  longer  be  perfect.  The 
pressure  at  the  base  of  B  will  be  greater  than  at  the  base  of  A.  The 
pressure  very  near  the  top  of  B  will  still  be  less  than  at  the  same 
level  in  A  so  long  as  the  top  of  A  remains  higher  than  the  top  of  B. 
There  will  be  some  intermediate  level  at  which  the  pressure  in 
the  two  columns  is  the  same.  Call  this  level  of  temporary  equality 
of  pressure  in  the  two  columns  the  neutral  level.  As  the  process 
of  erosion  and  deposition  progresses  the  neutral  level  will  gradu- 
ally progress  upward  from  its  original  position  at  the  base  of  the 
columns.  Eventually  if  no  interchange  of  mass  took  place  between 
the  columns  except  at  the  surface,  and  no  vertical  displacement 
occurred  in  either  column,  the  neutral  level  would  reach  the  sur- 
face when  the  process  of  erosion  and  deposition  became  complete 
and  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  two  columns  were  at  the  same  level. 
During  the  process  of  erosion  and  deposition  the  excess  of  pressure 
in  A  at  any  level  above  the  neutral  level  will  continually  decrease. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  153 

Similarly,  at  any  level  below  the  neutral  level  the  excess  of  pres- 
sure in  B  will  continually  increase  as  the  erosion  progresses  and 
the  neutral  level  will  rise.  Thus  there  will  be  established  a  con- 
tinually increasing  tendency  for  the  material  below  the  neutral 
level  in  B  to  be  squeezed  over  into  A.  If  the  stresses  tending  to 
produce  this  undertow  from  the  lower  part  of  B  to  A  become 
greater  than  the  material  can  stand,  the  flow  will  take  place  as 
indicated  by  the  arrow  in  the  figure.  If  the  material  flows  with- 
out change  of  volume,  as  if  it  were  incompressible,  the  upper  part 
of  A  and  its  surface  will  be  raised,  the  upper  part  of  B  and  its  sur- 
face will  be  lowered,  the  neutral  level  will  sink  and  an  approxi- 
mation to  the  original  conditions  with  complete  isostatic  com- 
pensation will  be  re-established. 

"This  is  the  general  case  of  isostatic  readjustment  by  the 
action  of  gravitation  alone.  Gravitation  tends  to  produce  a  deep 
undertow  from  the  regions  where  deposition  is  taking  place  to  the 
regions  where  erosion  is  in  progress,  in  the  direction  opposite  to 
that  of  the  surface  transfer  of  material. 

"Let  us  suppose  that  the  isostatic  compensation  at  a  given 
stage  in  the  earth's  history  is  practically  complete  for  a 
continent,  that  the  process  of  erosion  from  the  greater  part  of 
the  continent  and  deposition  around  its  margins  is  in  progress, 
and  that  the  process  of  readjustment  by  a  deep  undertow  is  in 
progress." 

The  fatal  defect  in  this  reasoning  consists  in  the  fact  that  it 
begs  the  question,  and  does  not  in  any  way  explain  the  elevation 
of  the  margin  of  a  continent,  but  only  how  it  may  maintain  its 
present  form  by  a  process  of  readjustment.  This  is  like  a  river 
rising  higher  than  its  source,  a  man  trying  to  lift  himself  by  pull- 
ing on  his  boot-straps,  or  the  logician  reasoning  in  a  circle.  For  in 
order  to  explain  the  development  of  the  inequalities  of  the  earth's 
crust,  we  must  not  only  explain  the  adjustment  and  balancing 
between  adjacent  parts,  but  also  how  the  original  uplift  came  about, 
to  give  the  observed  contrast  in  surface  levels. 


154         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Now  on  the  premises  used  by  Hayford,  it  is  possible  to  explain 
how  a  given  inequality  of  surface  levels,  when  once  existing,  can 
be  maintained;  but  it  is  not  possible  to  account  for  the  origin  of 
the  inequalities  of  level.  Isostacy  as  thus  depicted  is  not  an  active 
creative  agency,  but  simply  a  negative  process  for  maintaining  existing 
inequalities.  Under  the  doctrine  as  above  stated,  the  height  of  a 
mountain  or  plateau  could  never  increase,  for  that  would  require 
the  exertion  of  positive  elevating  forces,  not  mere  balancing  for 
maintaining  inequalities  of  levels  already  existing. 

Accordingly,  this  formulation  of  the  doctrines  of  Isostacy  is 
defective,  and  inadequate  to  account  for  the  phenomena  of  the 
earth's  crust. 

The  true  doctrine  should  include  not  only  the  balancing  pro- 
cess described  by  Hayford,  but  also  those  elevating  forces  directed 
from  the  sea,  by  which  the  mountains  are  elevated  as  narrow  walls 
about  the  borders  of  continents,  on  the  great  plateaus  which  spread 
out  as  wider  embankments  beneath  them.  Without  these  posi- 
tive uplifting  forces,  no  continent  could  ever  have  a  mountainous 
border  thrown  up  about  it. 

No  doubt  the  elevation  is  produced  under  approximately 
isostatic  conditions.  Mountains  can  be  forced  up  only  to  a  cer- 
tain height,  the  transfer  of  lighter  material  under  the  higher  parts 
thus  giving  nearly  equal  mass  in  all  equal  prisms  drawn  to  the 
center  of  the  earth.  The  path  of  least  resistance  is  towards  regions 
of  elevation,  and  the  underlying  material  expands  as  the  surface 
level  is  forced  up.  If  this  were  not  so  the  greater  weight  under 
the  elevated  region  would  cause  it  to  subside  to  the  common  level. 
In  this  way,  and  in  this  way  only,  can  progressive  elevation  be 
produced. 

The  weakness  of  the  old  method  of  reasoning  is  further  illus- 
trated by  Hay  ford's  remarks: 

"Under  a  region  of  deposition  two  effects  of  opposite  sign 
tend  to  occur.  The  effect  of  increased  pressure  tends  to  produce 
chemical  changes  accompanied  by  decrease  of  volume  and  so  to 
produce  a  sinking  of  the  surface.  The  blanket  of  deposited  mate- 


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UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  155 

rial  tends  to  raise  the  temperature  in  each  part  of  the  material 
covered,  to  increase  the  volume  of  this  material,  and  thereby  to 
raise  the  surface.  The  temperature  effect  may  serve  in  time  to 
arrest  the  subsidence  caused  by  increased  pressure  or  even  to  raise 
the  surface  and  change  the  region  of  deposition  into  one  of  erosion. 

"The  changes  of  temperature  just  described  are  due  directly 
to  erosion  and  deposition.  If  as  an  effect  of  erosion  and  deposi- 
tion an  undertow  is  started  tending  to  re-establish  the  isostatic 
condition,  this  undertow,  a  flow  of  material  presumably  solid, 
necessarily  develops  considerable  heat  by  internal  friction.  The 
increase  of  temperature  so  produced  tends  to  cause  an  increase  of 
volume.  It  may  favor  new  chemical  changes,  including  changes 
from  the  solid  to  the  liquid  state,  which  may  be  accompanied  by 
a  change  of  volume.  The  undertow  tends  to  be  strongest  not 
under  the  region  of  rapid  deposition,  but  under  the  comparatively 
neutral  region  between  the  two  in  which  neither  erosion  nor  deposi- 
tion is  much  in  excess  of  the  other,  see  Figure  2.  Hence  the  under- 
tow by  increasing  the  temperature  and  causing  a  change  of  density 
may  be  directly  effective  in  changing  the  elevation  of  the  neutral 
region  between  two  regions  of  deposition  and  erosion. 

"Horizontal  compressive  stresses  in  the  material  near  the 
surface  above  the  undertow  are  necessarily  caused  by  the  under- 
tow. For  the  undertow  necessarily  tends  to  carry  the  surface 
along  with  it  and  so  pushes  this  surface  material  against  that  in 
the  region  of  erosion,  see  Figure  2.  These  stresses  tend  to  pro- 
duce a  crumpling,  crushing  and  bending  of  the  surface  strata 
accompanied  by  increase  of  elevation  of  the  surface.  The  increase 
of  elevation  of  the  surface  so  produced  will  tend  to  be  greatest 
in  the  neutral  region  or  near  the  edge  of  the  region  of  erosion,  not 
under  the  region  of  rapid  erosion  nor  under  the  region  of  rapid 
deposition." 

The  criticism  against  this  reasoning  is  the  same  as  that  used 
above  —  namely,  it  will  explain  only  balancing,  but  not  the  up- 
lifting of  great  mountain  walls  along  the  sea  coast.  Nothing  but 
the  transfer  of  lava  from  beneath  the  sea,  and  the  expansion  of  it 


156         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

under  the  mountains  will  explain  the  observed  mountain  walls 
along  the  borders  of  continents;  and  this  requires  positive  forces  of 
elevation,  not  mere  negative  processes.  The  advocates  of  Isostacy, 
as  heretofore  taught,  have  left  that  doctrine  with  such  a  serious 
defect  that  this  correction  is  necessary  to  give  it  a  rational  basis. 

§8.  The  uplifting  of  the  Himalayas,  Arrakan  and  Afghanistan 
Ranges  explains  the  great  Asiastic  earthquake  belt.  Confirmation  of 
Colonel  Burrard's  impressions  that  the  Himalayas  have  been  pushed 
northward,  but  not  by  a  change  in  the  rotation  period  of  the  earth. 

We  have  seen  that  the  region  now  occupied  by  the  rivers 
Indus  and  Ganges  was  formerly  a  sea  valley;  and  that  after  the 
Himalayas  were  elevated  to  a  great  height,  the  valley  itself  was 
slowly  raised  above  the  ocean. 

If  proof  is  asked  that  the  valleys  of  the  Indus  and  Ganges 
were  formerly  below  the  sea,  it  is  furnished  by  the  well  established 
fact  that  such  valleys  as  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  in 
California  were  below  the  sea  when  the  Sierras  were  being  elevated. 
What  has  happened  in  California  has  also  happened  in  India;  and 
the  same  process  of  elevation  will  eventually  give  a  fertile  habitable 
valley  in  the  belt  just  south  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  now  covered 
by  a  sea  nearly  five  miles  deep. 

This  proof  that  the  valleys  of  the  Indus  and  Ganges  once  were 
several  miles  beneath  the  sea  level  is  absolute.  For  it  is  definitely 
known  how  the  mountain  ranges  and  adjacent  valleys  are  crum- 
pled, and  finally  raised  above  the  sea.  And  what  has  happened 
for  mountain  ranges  in  general,  has  happened  also  for  the  Hima- 
layas and  the  valleys  adjacent  thereto. 

In  order  to  round  out  the  view  here  traced,  it  only  remains 
to  add  that  the  Arrakan  coast  of  farther  India  contains  two  chief 
mountain  chains,  one  of  which  is  the  backbone  of  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula; and  the  other  is  the  range  terminating  at  Cape  Negrais,  but 
continuing  under  the  sea  in  a  string  of  islands,  and  reappearing 
further  south  as  Sumatra  and  Java.  The  Andaman  Islands  and 
several  volcanoes  in  the  sea  appear  between  Cape  Negrais  and 


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MX.  EVEREST,  THE  HIGHEST  PEAK  OF  THE  HIMALAYAS   AND  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Altitude  29,002  feet  above  sea  level.     Photograph  by  Vittorio  Sella,  from  Chunjerma  Pass  (Nepal), 
80  miles  distant,  National  Geographical  Magazine  for  June,  1909. 


THE    RUWENZORI. 

In  Equatorial  East  Africa,  rising  to  an  altitude  of  18,600  feet.     This  snow  capped  range  in  the  hottest  part  of  Africa 
was  explored  by  the  Duke  of  the  Abbruzzi  in  1906.     Photograph  by  Vittorio  Sella,  from  the  South,  National 
Geographical  Magazine,  for  June,  1909. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  157 

Sumatra.  And  both  Java  and  Sumatra  are  noted  for  their 
terrific  volcanic  violence.  This  volcanic  chain  is  analogous  to  that 
of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  except  that  the  middle  part  is  submerged, 
and  the  two  ends  raised  above  the  waves. 

The  line  of  thought  here  developed  enables  us  to  understand 
the  volcanic  activities  of  farther  India,  and  also  the  terrible  belt 
of  earthquakes  in  Assam  and  the  adjacent  regions  south  of  the 
Himalayas.  Part  of  the  ancient  sea  valley  is  above  the  water  as 
low  land,  and  part  still  in  the  ocean,  and  covered  by  the  sea  to  a 
considerable  depth. 

West  of  India,  we  have  the  complicated  mountain  ranges  and 
earthquake  belts  of  Afghanistan  and  Persia.  It  would  be  difficult 
if  not  impossible  to  understand  the  phenomena  they  present  if 
studied  alone;  but  if  studied  in  connection  with  the  developments 
of  India  and  farther  India  above  discussed,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
Afghanistan  and  Persia  were  built  up  in  like  manner,  and  at  no 
very  distant  epoch  were  beneath  the  sea. 

In  his  article  on  the  Himalayas,  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  9th 
edition,  the  late  General  Strachey  has  strongly  emphasized  the 
view  that  the  mountains  and  table  lands  of  Afghanistan  and 
Persia  are  intelligible  only  in  connection  with  those  of  India.  "  It 
is  after  the  middle  tertiary  epoch  that  the  principal  elevation  of 
these  mountains  took  place,  and  about  the  same  time  also  took 
place  the  movements  which  raised  the  tablelands  of  Afghanistan 
and  Persia,  and  gave  southern  Asia  its  existing  outlines." 

He  also  points  out  the  fact  that  at  no  very  distant  geological 
epoch  the  ocean  extended  from  the  Arabian  Sea  through  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  to  the  Caspian  and  Mediterranean.  The  continuation 
of  the  earthquake  belt  through  this  region  of  western  Asia  is  there- 
fore quite  intelligible,  and  the  existence  of  active  volcanoes  near 
the  Caspian  a  survival  of  present  and  former  relations  to  the  ocean. 

The  annual  rainfall  south  of  the  Himalayas  amounts  to  about 
thirty-six  feet,  and  this  is  so  enormous  as  to  be  almost  as  effective 
as  a  shallow  sea  in  keeping  alive  earthquake  processes. 


158         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

It  is  established  by  observation,  for  example,  that  the  very 
active  volcano  Sangai,  in  the  terrible  rain  belt  at  the  head  of  the 
Amazon,  in  Ecuador,  has  its  activity  about  doubled  during  the 
worst  period  of  the  rainy  season,  owing  to  the  effects  of  surface 
water.  If  in  South  America  the  volcanic  forces  can  be  visibly 
augumented  by  copious  surface  water,  it  is  easy  to  understand 
that  the  terrible  rains  of  India  may  also  operate  to  keep  alive  the 
earthquake  processes  almost  as  well  as  an  overlying  sea. 

The  earthquake  belt  south  of  the  Himalayas  is  thus  perfectly 
explained.  And  the  extension  of  this  line  of  disturbance  through 
to  the  Caspian  presents  no  difficulty,  when  account  is  taken  of  the 
recent  situation  of  the  sea  over  a  large  part  of  this  region  of 
western  Asia. 

In  conclusion  it  only  remains  to  add  that  Colonel  Burrard's 
argument,  cited  in  section  1  above,  that  the  Himalayas  resulted 
from  the  pushing  of  a  great  mass  of  matter  northward,  undoubted- 
ly is  correct.  This  fact  appears  to  be  as  well  established  as  the 
rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  and  further  discussion  of  the  subject 
is  superfluous. 

The  cause  of  this  northward  movement  is  also  fully  estab- 
lished, but  it  is  not  that  imagined  by  Colonel  Burrard.  In  the 
Observatory  for  May  and  June,  1912,  will  be  found  a  discussion 
by  Colonel  Burrard  of  considerable  interest,  but  founded  on  the 
premise  that  the  earth's  speed  of  rotation  is  variable  and  has 
undergone  considerable  changes  within  the  period  covered  by 
geological  history. 

The  writer's  Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Stellar  Systems, 
Volume  II,  1910,  show  that  the  views  formerly  held  by  Lord  Kel- 
vin and  Sir  George  Darwin  are  now  quite  inadmissible;  and  that 
the  earth's  rotation  has  not  changed  sensibly  since  the  earliest 
geological  time.  Thus  Colonel  Burrard's  premise  that  the  retarda- 
tion of  the  earth's  rotation  might  cause  a  flow  of  matter  towards 
the  poles  is  wholly  inadmissible. 

Besides,  there  are  other  means  of  showing  that  such  was  not 
the  origin  of  the  Himalayas.  These  great  mountains  of  India, 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  159 

for  example,  should  no  more  be  due  to  a  change  in  the  earths* 
rotation,  than  should  the  Andes,  which  run  almost  exactly  north 
and  south,  and  by  their  course  along  the  meridian,  exclude  an 
explanation  founded  on  a  change  in  the  speed  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion. 

And  as  the  Andes  are  well  known  to  have  been  formed  by  the 
sea  in  the  way  we  have  described,  it  is  certain  that  the  same  cause 
uplifted  the  Himalayas  and  the  plateau  of  Tibet. 

From  these  considerations  it  will  be  seen  that  the  modern 
sciences  of  Geogony  and  Cosomogony  are  closely  related,  and  that 
neither  can  be  perfectly  developed  without  the  aid  of  the  other. 
Just  as  it  is  impossible  to  develop  a  satisfactory  theory  of  the 
formation  of  the  earth  without  data  drawn  from  the  modern 
Science  of  Cosmogony;  so  also  Cosmogony  itself  has  been  much 
improved  by  a  Science  of  Geogony  which  gives  a  correct  theory  of 
terrestrial  mountain  formation.  For  that  has  aided  in  establish- 
ing the  origin  of  the  lunar  craters,  and  the  early  growth  of  the  earth 
itself  by  impact  —  the  existing  ranges  of  mountains  having  been 
subsequently  formed  by  the  sea  and  thus  made  parallel  to  the 
coasts. 

On  the  other  hand,  without  the  theory  that  the  mountains 
generally  are  formed  by  the  ocean,  which  is  so  clearly  established 
for  the  typical  range  of  the  Andes,  running  exactly  north  and  south, 
our  ideas  of  the  origin  of  the  Himalayas  might  have  remained  ob- 
scure for  ages. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  that  these  results  illus- 
trate somewhat  impressively  the  value  of  a  comprehensive  vision 
in  the  study  of  the  Sciences.  Without  this  power  for  comparing 
together  the  most  remote  objects  there  can  be  no  progress  in  dis- 
covery of  the  highest  order. 

Starlight  on  Loutre,  Montgomery  City,  Missouri, 
March  27,  1913. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

1911. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS.* 
By  T.  J.  J.  SEE. 

'E  are  assembled  to  consider  the  great  Law  of  Nature  which 
governs  the  Evolution  of  Worlds,  and  to  celebrate  the  Found- 
ing of  a  New  Science  of  the  Starry  Heavens.  Prior  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Science  of  Cosmogony,  from  researches  made 
here  in  California  during  the  past  few  years,  the  most  recent 
Astronomical  Science  developed  by  a  modern  investigator  was 
Astrophysics,  which  was  founded  by  the  late  Sir  William  Huggins 
half  a  century  ago.  From  this  circumstance  it  is  not  without 
inspiration  to  recall  the  lively  interest  taken  by  this  illustrious 
pioneer  in  the  development  of  the  New  Science  of  Cosmogony. 
For  just  as  in  early  manhood  he  foresaw  with  prophetic  vision  the 
great  possibilities  of  Astrophysics,  so  also  in  the  last  years  of  a  long 
life  consecrated  to  the  advancement  of  truth,  this  venerable  philos- 
opher was  one  of  the  first  to  welcome  the  founding  of  a  New  Science 
of  Cosmical  Evolution.  We  may  pause  to  recall  the  early  words 
of  Sir  William  Huggins,  which  were  the  more  appreciated  because 
they  were  uttered  before  the  New  Science  had  become  established 
in  the  scientific  world. 

Writing  from  London,  under  date  of  August  11,  1908,  he 
says: — "I  hasten  to  thank  you  for  your  letter  giving  me  early 
information  of  your  bold  and  startling  new  theory  of  spiral  nebulae. 
It  takes  one's  breath  away  to  endeavor  to  realize  the  going  round 
of  these  long  drawn  out  wisps,  I  suppose,  billions  of  billions  of 

*  Address  to  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences,  delivered  August  7,  1911. 
Reprinted  from  Popular  Astronomy  for  November- December,  1911. 


0.  !.  I.I  H  H  ,   0 


E  fl  M  E  T  P  H  I 


E  k    THI    81BA100HKHI 


E  O  I    A  E  I    F-EftMETPEI 


A  BOOK-PLATE  REPRESENTING  ONE  OF  THE  GREATEST  LAWS  OF  NATURE. 

Presented  to  Professor  See  by  Citizens  of  California,   1911,  with  the  appropriate  inscription: 

"THE  DEITY  ALWAYS  GEOMETRIZES,"  which  naturally  is  dear  to  the  Mathematician. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  161 

miles  long!  At  the  first  blush  one  would  hardly  expect  them  to 
make  headway  in  any  resisting  medium.  But  your  theory  gets 
out  of  the  astonishing  difficulty  of  how  they  exist,  if  at  rest,  in  any 
state  approaching  equilibrium.  If,  as  you  say  it  does,  the  thing 
works  out,  we  seem  to  have  reached  something  like  certainty  in 
a  subject  which  hitherto  has  been  in  more  senses  than  one  a  nebu- 
lous one.  I  am  greatly  interested  and  shall  look  forward  to  the 
fuller  working  out  of  your  ideas.  Laplace's  theory  is  no  doubt 
vulnerable." 

In  a  note  of  June  6,  1909,  Sir  William  added:  "It  is  indeed 
an  exciting  time  when  one's  old  notions  are  disappearing  under 
the  light  of  new  knowledge.  One  almost  regrets  the  time  when 
one  could  sleep  comfortably  in  Laplace's  bosom." 

On  September  12, 1909,  Sir  William  wrote :  "I  have  received, 
and  desire  now  to  thank  you  for,  separate  copies  of  your  important 
papers  on  the  Capture  of  Satellites,  and  of  the  Moon,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten.  From  the  point  of 
sentiment  it  is,  perhaps,  disappointing  to  learn  that  our  old 
Moon  is  not  an  earth-son,  but  some  gypsy  body,  and  that 
all  the  planets  and  satellites  of  our  system  are  not  children 
and  grand-children  of  the  sun,  but  'undesirable  aliens'  from 
nobody  knows  where!  But  fact  and  truth  come  before  senti- 
ment, and  your  views  claim  the  earnest  consideration  of  all 
astronomers." 

Another  celebrated  philosopher  who  early  welcomed  these 
new  advances  and  therefore  is  not  to  be  forgotten  by  us  to-night, 
is  the  lamented  Schiaparelli,  the  most  illustrious  Italian  astrono- 
mer since  the  days  of  Galileo.  He  heartily  rejoiced  to  be  able  to 
recognize  in  the  recent  discoveries  the  aurora  which  heralds  the 
coming  day  of  a  New  Science  of  Cosmogony,  and  pointed  out  that 
heretofore  astronomers  had  been  occupied  mainly  with  ascertain- 
ing the  present  state  of  the  heavens. 

On  the  occasion  of  this  anniversary,  three  years  after  the  first 
private  announcements  were  made  to  Sir  William  Huggins,  ex- 
president  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  acknowledged  by  him  in  the 


162         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

letters  above  quoted,  we  find  the  New  Science  of  Cosmogony  already 
widely  recognized  by  the  most  eminent  astronomers  and  geom- 
eters. To  all  who  have  extended  this  generous  welcome  to  new 
truth  struggling  for  a  foothold  in  the  world,  it  is  needless  to  say 
that  we  return  most  humble  and  hearty  thanks,  but  to  none  more 
appropriately  than  the  illustrious  Poincare,  the  foremost  natural 
philosopher  and  geometer  of  our  age. 

Writing  to  me  from  Paris  under  date  of  July  6,  1911,  this 
incomparable  mathematician  says:  "I  have  made  use  of  your 
book  (Researches ,  Vol.  II)  in  my  course  this  year,  although  I  had 
not  expected  to  do  so,  since  I  did  not  receive  the  volume  till  near 
the  close  of  the  last  lesson;  I  then  insisted,  with  profit,  on  the 
capture  of  planets  by  a  resisting  medium. 

"My  course  is  being  published  and  I  shall  send  it  to  you  as 
soon  as  it  appears,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  month  of  November.  You 
will  see  there  the  remarks  and  the  difficulties  which  your  theories 
have  suggested  to  me. 

Your  very  devoted  colleague, 

POINCARE." 

Among  the  other  investigators  who  have  joined  in  this  not- 
able advance,  special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  work  of  our 
eminent  colleague  Professor  E.  W.  Brown,  of  Yale  University, 
for  an  important  extension  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Capture  of 
Satellites  (Monthly  Notices  of  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  March, 
1911);  and  of  the  recent  researches  of  Professor  Elis  Stromgren, 
of  the  Royal  Observatory  of  Copenhagen,  demonstrating  the 
elliptical  character  of  the  orbits  of  all  comets,  thus  showing  that 
they  are  attached  to  the  solar  system,  and  do  not  move  in  parabolic 
or  hyperbolic  orbits,  as  was  long  believed.  This  work  of  Strom- 
gren has  removed  the  last  important  difficulty  in  establishing  the 
Science  of  Cosmogony.  Indeed  his  researches  on  comets  seem 
likely  to  constitute  the  most  notable  advance  in  our  theory  of 
these  mysterious  objects  since  the  days  of  Tycho,  Kepler  and 
Newton. 


**- 


POINCARE. 

The  eminent  French  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher,  and  one  of  the  greatest  of 
modern  astronomers. 


HIPPARCHUS. 

The  founder  of  the  Science  of  Astronomy,  and  the  most  famous  of  the 
Greek  astronomers.  This  genuine  portrait  of  Hipparchus  is  based  on  an  antique 
cameo  found  by  Admiral  Smyth,  the  British  amateur  astronomer,  during  a  cruise 
in  the  Mediterranean  about  the  year  1813,  most  likely  at  Athens  or  Alexandria. 
An  outline  of  it  is  given  in  Chambers'  Astronomy,  Vol.  III.  As  here  presented 
it  has  been  carefully  enlarged  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Axlund,  and  the  deficient  parts  filled 
out  by  Professor  See,  who  added  the  base,  with  inscription  from  Ptolemy,  who 
praises  Hipparchus  as  a  "labor-loving  and  truth-loving  man." 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  163 

I.    CIRCUMSTANCES  ATTENDING  THE  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE 
NEW  SCIENCE  OF  COSMOGONY. 

From  these  considerations  it  is  evident  that  we  have  recently 
witnessed  the  development  of  a  new  science  of  the  starry  heavens. 
As  will  be  seen  hereafter  it  throws  a  clear  light  upon  the  astrono- 
my of  the  invisible,*  and  illuminates  the  remotest  regions  of 
space  almost  as  brightly  as  those  well-lighted  portions  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  sun,  where  the  planets  move.  In  fact  it  has 
been  justly  remarked  that  our  new  science  lights  up  the  firmament 
not  unlike  a  new  star  which  suddenly  appears  in  the  sky;  and  its 
development  seems  to  have  been  almost  as  unexpected.  We  are 
still  dazzled  by  the  splendor  of  the  light  which  has  been  suddenly 
thrown  on  the  invisible  processes  of  creation.  For  the  processes 
of  cosmical  evolution  are  so  slow  that  they  extend  over  vast 
ages,  and  in  general  cannot  be  directly  observed,  but  must 
be  inferred,  from  the  order  now  found  to  pervade  the  sidereal 
universe. 

Like  Astronomy  itself,  Cosmogony  in  a  primitive  way  dates 
back  to  the  age  of  the  Greeks,  having  been  allegorically  treated 
by  the  poets  and  afterwards  more  adequately  developed  by  such 
natural  philosophers  as  Anaximander,  Democritus  and  Anaxagoras; 
so  that  it  is  at  once  the  oldest  and  the  newest  of  the  sciences.  But 
it  is  only  within  the  last  twelve  years  that  we  have  secured  the 
necessary  data  of  observation,  on  the  nebulae,  chiefly  by  Keeler 
and  Perrine  at  Lick  Observatory,  and  introduced  rigorous  mathe- 
matical criteria  which  give  us  the  permanent  basis  of  a  true  phy- 
sical science.  Accordingly  whilst  Astronomy  proper  was  placed 
on  a  secure  foundation  by  the  researches  of  such  ancient  geom- 
eters as  Apollonius,  Aristarchus  and  Archimedes,  combined  with 
the  observational  data  of  Timocharis,  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy, 
Cosmogony  proved  to  be  much  more  difficult  to  reduce  to  a 
satisfactory  basis  of  observation  and  demonstration,  and  has 

*  Systems  of  planets,  asteroids,  satellites  and  comets  are  wholly  invisible  at 
the  distance  of  the  fixed  stars,  yet  they  are  now  proved  to  exist  about  all  these  suns. 


164         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

become  a  Science  only  since  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century. 

It  is  justly  remarked  that  a  high  order  of  knowledge  of  the 
stars  and  their  systems  and  of  the  chaotic  nebulae  from  which 
they  arose  was  necessary  before  it  was  possible  to  attempt  to 
develop  a  real  science  of  world  formation.  Thus  for  upwards  of 
2,000  years  Cosmogony  remained  little  more  than  an  unsatisfactory 
collection  of  opinions;  and  even  quite  recently  one  eminent  mathe- 
matician, who  still  adheres  to  the  old  way  of  thinking,  has  likened 
Cosmogony  to  Astrology,  holding  that  the  secrets  of  the  origin  of 
the  universe  are  forever  beyond  the  powers  of  the  human  mind. 
These  views,  of  course,  are  erroneous,  and  yet  they  give  us  some 
idea  of  the  difficulties  which  have  been  overcome.  It  is  a  remark- 
able fact  that  our  philosophical  difficulties  have  consisted  chiefly 
in  false  premises.  These  obstacles  ought  to  have  been  forseen  and 
avoided,  but  there  were  peculiar  circumstances  which  long  de- 
ceived the  most  eminent  mathematicians  —  including  Laplace, 
Sir  John  Herschel,  Lord  Kelvin,  Newcomb,  Darwin,  Tisserand, 
and  Poincare.  We  shall  presently  trace  the  development  of  the 
New  Science  of  Cosmogony  with  enough  detail  to  render  the  results 
intelligible,  but  we  shall  first  consider  the  conditions  requisite  for 
the  creation  of  a  new  mathematical  science. 

II.    CONDITIONS   REQUISITE   FOR   THE   FOUNDING   OF   EXACT 

SCIENCES. 

As  already  pointed  out,  Cosmogony  deals  with  the  laws  of 
the  formation  of  the  heavenly  bodies;  and  the  perfection  of  this 
new  physical  science  must  be  regarded  as  the  ultimate  object  of 
all  astronomical  research.  However  special  our  individual  in- 
vestigations may  be,  this  is  the  one  ultimate  purpose  which  they 
may  be  supposed  to  serve.  And  until  the  laws  of  cosmical  evolu- 
tion can  be  at  least  roughly  outlined  all  our  astronomical  efforts 
are  as  aimless  for  the  discovery  of  the  highest  laws  of  Nature  as 
are  the  unguided  steps  of  the  blind  leading  the  blind.  No  wonder 
that  astronomers  should  value  researches  which  will  give  us  light 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  165 

on  the  laws  of  Cosmogony,  heretofore  veiled  in  the  darkness  of 
perpetual  night.  Such  discoveries  are  like  the  heavenly  manna 
for  feeding  the  famished  wanderer  in  the  wilderness  searching  for 
the  way  to  the  promised  land. 

The  pioneer  in  Science  must  always  be  both  an  explorer  and 
an  apostle.  His  path  must  necessarily  be  lonely  and  desolate, 
and  beset  by  the  most  unexpected  difficulties.  It  takes  as  coura- 
geous a  soul  to  lead  the  way  to  new  fields  of  knowledge  as  it  does 
to  blaze  the  way  to  a  new  civilization,  such  as  the  pioneers  of  our 
country  founded  in  early  days  of  this  Republic.  No  wonder  that 
those  who  came  after  the  hard  and  rough  work  is  done  have  always 
said  "Blessed  be  the  memory  of  the  pioneers." 

Let  me  justify  this  opinion  of  the  difficulties  of  the  highest 
mathematical  science  by  the  great  authority  of  Plato,  who  has 
been  justly  regarded  as  the  most  luminous  intellect  of  the  ancient 
times.  This  greatest  of  the  Greek  sages  declared  that  "an  astron- 
omer must  be  the  wisest  of  men;  his  mind  must  be  duly  disci- 
plined in  youth;  especially  is  mathematical  study  necessary;  both 
an  acquiantance  with  the  doctrine  of  number,  and  also  with  the 
other  branch  of  mathematics,  which,  closely  connected  as  it  is 
with  the  heavens,  we  very  absurdly  call  Geometry,  the  measure- 
ment of  the  earth."  (Epinomis,  p.  988-900). 

With  Plato's  estimate  of  the  intellectual  qualification  of  an 
astronomer  before  us,  will  anyone  believe  that  a  modern  astrono- 
mer can  have  any  real  standing  who  is  not  a  mathematician?  If 
sound  mathematical  knowledge  was  necessary  in  the  simple  age 
of  the  Greeks,  how  much  more  necessary  is  it  now,  with  problems 
vastly  more  complex  and  difficult  than  any  treated  by  the  ancients? 
Obviously  Astronomy  is  not  possible  without  the  exact  methods 
of  mathematics,  and  this  criterion  is  a  safe  one  in  fixing  the  standard 
of  any  physical  science. 

Not  only  must  the  astronomer  be  the  wisest  and  intellectu- 
ally the  most  penetrating  of  men,  but  in  order  to  be  a  discoverer  of 
the  first  order,  he  must  be  just  in  his  habits  of  mind  and  wholly 
devoted  to  truth.  In  a  celebrated  saying  preserved  by  Plutarch, 
(Quest.  Conv.,  VIII,  2)  Plato  declares  that  "the  Deity  always 


166         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

geometrizes" — o  0«os  ««V  ycw/AeVpei.*  Since  the  astronomer  there- 
fore labors  to  discover  the  laws  and  processes  established  by  the 
Deity  from  the  foundation  of  the  world,  it  is  evident  that  this 
highest  order  of  truth  can  be  perceived  only  by  those  who  are 
philosophically  equable  and  altogether  devoted  to  the  search  for 
the  correct  principles  of  science.  The  kingdom  of  ideas  thus  dis- 
closed to  the  faithful  philosopher  passeth  not  away,  but  endureth 
from  generation  to  generation,  as  ageless  as  the  heavens! 

III.    Six  PRINCIPAL  EPOCHS  IN  THE  SCIENCE  OF  THE  HEAVENS. 

The  importance  of  any  development  in  astronomical  science 
depends  on  the  light  it  throws  on  the  physical  causes  which  under- 
lie the  phenomena  of  the  universe.  Laplace  justly  says  that 
Tycho  Brahe,  great  observer  though  he  was,  had  little  intuition 
into  causes,  and  history  therefore  does  not  rate  Tycho  in  the  same 
class  with  Kepler  and  Newton,  who  established  the  laws  of  the 
heavenly  motions.  By  this  criterion  that  the  importance  of  a 
discovery  depends  on  the  light  it  throws  on  causes,  we  find  that 
there  have  been  six  principal  epochs  in  the  history  of  Astronomy. 

1.  The  Epoch  of  the  Greeks,  who  studied  the  apparent  mo- 
tions of  the  planets,  and  deduced  the  fact  that  their  paths  are 
nearly  exact  circles;  whence  it  was  supposed  that  the  orbits  are 
circular,  because  the  Deity  had  chosen  this  perfect  geometrical 
figure  for  the  paths  of  the  heavenly  bodies.    This  comprised  the 
work  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Eudoxus  and  Apollonius,  Aristarchus 
and  Archimedes,  Hipparachus  and  Ptolemy. 

2.  The  Epoch  of  Copernicus,  who  established  the  heliocentric 
theory  of  the  world  in  1543,  and  showed  that  Aristarchus  of  Samos 
was  right  in  holding  that  the  stars  are  at  a  nearly  infinite  distance 
from  our  sun,  and  thus  should  suffer  no  sensible  displacement  from 
the  annual  motion  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit. 

*  The  plate  with  this  inscription,  used  as  a  frontispiece  to  this  address,  is  really 
a  book-plate  kindly  presented  to  me  by  California  friends  who  take  great  interest 
in  the  recent  discoveries  in  Cosmogony.  The  portrait  is  one  of  Plato,  and,  above, 
Kaulbach's  painting  of  Homer  and  the  Greeks, —  representing  the  atmosphere  in 
which  Plato  lived.  The  other  figures  represent  the  spiral  nebula  74  Piscium  and 
the  finished  solar  system. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  167 

3.  The  Epoch  of  Kepler  and  Galileo,  the  one  the  discoverer 
of  the  laws  of  the  planetary  motions,  the  other  the  inventor  of  the 
telescope  and  discoverer  of  the  laws  of  falling  bodies,  by  which 
terrestrial  and  celestial  motions  could  be  compared  and  critically 
investigated.    These  great  discoveries  paved  the  way  for  the 
science  of  the  heavenly  motions  as  developed  by  Newton. 

4.  The  Epoch  of  Newton,  who  established  the  law  of  universal 
gravitation  and  reduced  all  observed  phenomena  to  approximate 
conformity  with  this  great  law  of  nature. 

5.  The  Epoch  of  Lag-range  and  Laplace  and  Herschel.    The 
first  two  great  geometers  verified  and  extended  the  Newtonian 
law,  and  also  established  the  essential  stability  of  the  solar  system; 
while  Herschel  explored  the  sidereal  universe  and  thus  afforded  an 
observational  basis  for  an  imperfect  beginning  of  Cosmogony  in 
the  old  nebular  hypothesis.    The  problem  of  the  stability  of  the 
solar  system  now  appears  in  a  new  light,  for  we  find  that  only 
planets  with  stable  motions  have  survived,  while  a  vast  number 
of  small  bodies  moving  in  unstable  orbits  have  been  swallowed  up 
and  destroyed  to  lay  the  foundations  of  the  larger  masses  of  our 
system.    The  orbits  which  survive  are  thus  free  from  mutual 
entanglement,  and  arranged  as  if  to  endure  almost  forever. 

6.  The  Epoch  now  growing  out  of  the  Development  of  a  Science 
of  Cosmogony.    This  was  made  possible  partly  by  the  application 
of  the  spectroscope  to  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  was  begun 
by  Sir  Wm.  Huggins  in  1864,  and  afterwards  perfected  by  the 
development  of  Astronomical  Photography,  and  partly  by  the 
solution  of  the  restricted  problem  of  three  bodies.    This  two- 
fold advance  led  to  a  great  increase  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
nebulae  and  of  their  mode  of  development  into  Cosmical  Systems, 
under  laws  which  are  demonstrated  to  be  consistent  with  the 
established  principles  of  the  mechanics  of  the  heavens. 

The  present  epoch  is  the  one  towards  which  all  the  previous 
epochs  have  pointed,  and  for  which  the  great  discoveries  of  the 
past  have  laid  the  foundations.  The  epoch  of  Cosmogony  has 
been  especially  advanced  by  the  researches  and  discoveries  of 
American  astronomers,  beginning  with  the  photographic  work 


168         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

of  Keeler  in  1899;  so  that  this  science  of  the  centuries  seems  likely 
to  be  peculiarly  an  American  science.  It  has  been  considerably 
advanced  also  by  eminent  European  investigators,  among  whom 
Darwin,  Poincare,  Arrhenius  and  Stromgren  seem  to  have  taken 
the  leading  part. 

In  order  to  bring  out  the  most  significant  facts,  we  shall  con- 
sider in  succession  a  number  of  topics.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell 
on  Laplace's  old  nebular  hypothesis,  because  it  is  now  universally 
abandoned  by  astronomers,  but  we  may  recall  very  briefly  the  line 
of  argument  developed  in  Babinet's  criterion,  by  which  the  detach- 
ment theory  was  finally  overthrown,  and  the  new  theory  of  capture, 
or  of  addition  from  without,  was  introduced  to  take  its  place. 

Such  a  complete  transformation  of  this  great  subject  neces- 
sarily involves  new  causes  heretofore  quite  overlooked;  among 
which  we  should  mention  the  resisting  medium  and  the  operation 
of  repulsive  forces  in  nature.  The  resisting  medium  has  exercised 
vast  influence  in  building  up  central  masses  and  reducing  the  size 
and  eccentricity  of  orbits,  producing  incidentally  the  capture  of 
satellites;  while  the  repulsive  forces  have  operated  to  disperse 
matter  in  the  form  of  fine  dust  from  the  stars,  to  produce  nebulae, 
which  finally  condense  into  all  manner  of  planetary  and  stellar 
systems.  Even  the  comets  as  well  as  variable  and  temporary  stars, 
thus  find  a  simple  explanation  in  accordance  with  the  general  laws 
of  the  heavens. 

IV.    BABINET'S  CRITERION  SHOWS  THAT  LAPLACE'S  COSMOGONY 
RESTS  ON  A  FALSE  PREMISE. 

In  the  Comptes  Rendus  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  for 
March  18,  1861,  Babinet  introduced  an  important  criterion  show- 
ing that  Laplace's  cosmogony  was  erroneous,  by  proving  from  the 
mechanical  principle  of  the  conservation  of  areas,  that  when  the 
sun  is  expanded  to  fill  the  orbits  of  the  planets,  as  imagined  by 
Laplace,  the  rotation  is  much  too  slow  to  develop  a  centrifugal 
force  adequate  to  detach  the  planets.  The  following  table  gives 
the  principal  data  from  Babinet's  criterion  as  now  applied  to  the 
planets  and  satellites  of  the  solar  system: 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE 


169 


I.    TABLE  SHOWING  THE  APPLICATION  OF  BABINET'S  CRITERION  TO  THE  PLANETS 

AND  SATELLITES  WHEN  THE  SUN  AND  PLANETS  ARE  EXPANDED  TO  FILL 

THE  ORBITS  OF  THE  BODIES  REVOLVING  ABOUT  THEM. 

Solar  System. 


Planet. 

#0 

The  Sun's  Observed 
Time  of  Rotation. 

Po 

Observed  Period 
of  Planet. 

«0 

Time  of  Sun's  Rotation 
Calculated  by  Babinet's 
Criterion. 

Mercury 

25.3  days 
=0.069267  yrs. 

"479'yi 
1673 
3192 
7424 
24487 
86560 
290962 
1176765 
2888533 

•s. 

0.24085  yr 
0.61237 
1.00000 
1.88085 
4.60345 
11.86 
29.46 
84.02 
164.78 

s. 

Venus 
The  Earth 
Mars 
Ceres 
Jupiter 
Saturn 
Uranus 
Neptune 

Sub-systems. 


Planet. 

Satellite. 

Rc 

Adopted  Rotation 
of  Planet. 

PC 

Observed  Period 
of  Satellite. 

Ro 
Time  of  Planet's 
Rotation    Calcu- 
lated by  Babinet's 
Criterion. 

The  Earth 
Mars  .  .  . 

The  moon 

Phobos 
Deimos 

V 
I 
II 
III 
IV 
VI 
VII 
VIII 

Inner  edge  of  ring 
Outer  edge  of  ring 
Mimas 
Enceladus 
Tethys 
Dione 
Rhea 
Titan 
Hyperion 
lapetus 
Phoebe 

Ariel 

Umbriel 
Titania 
Oberon 

Satellite 

Iday 
24.62297  hrs. 

27.32166  days 

7.6542  hours 
30.2983      " 

11.9563  hours 
1.7698605days 
3.5540942  " 
7.1663872  " 
16.7535524  " 
250.618 
265.0 
930.73 

0.236      days 
0.6456 
0.94242      " 
1.37022      " 
1.887796    " 
2.736913    " 
4.517500    " 
15.945417     " 
21.277396    " 
79.329375    " 
546.5 

2.520383  days 

4.144181  days 
8.705897    " 
13.463269    " 

5.87690   days 

3632.45  days 

190.62  hours 
1193.53 

64.456  hours 
14.60  days 
35.900    ' 
93.933 
290.63 
10768.8 
11602.4 
61997.2 

0.6228days 
2.383      ' 
4.2902 
7.0615 
10.822 
17.751 
34.620 
186.05 
273.06 
1580.1 
20712. 

33.714  days 

65.435  days 
176.05 
314.83 

141.8      days 

Jupiter  . 

9.928  hrs. 

10.641  hrs. 

Saturn  .  . 





Uranus. 

10.1112  hrs. 
(Cf.  A.N.,  3992) 



Neptune 

12.84817  hrs. 
(Cf.  A.N.,  3992) 

170 


BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 


II.    TABLE  OF  DATA  RELATING  TO  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


Planet. 

Centrifugal  Force,  calculated  from 
data  of  Babinet's  criterion,  pres- 
ent orbital  centrifugal  force  being 
unity. 

Density  of    Central  Body,  when 
expanded  to  fill  orbit,  that  of  at- 
mospheric air  at  sea  level  being 
unity. 

Mercury  

0.000000253 

0.001776 

Venus  

0.000000134 

0.0002723 

The  Earth 

0.000000098 

00001029 

Mars  

0.000000064 

0.00002913 

Ceres 

0.000000035 

TuDiter 

0.000000019 

0000000732 

Saturn 

0.000000010 

0.000000118 

Uranus 

0.0000000051 

0.0000000146 

Neptune  

0.0000000032 

0.0000000038 

III.    TABLE  OF  DATA  RELATING  TO  THE  SATELLITE  SYSTEMS. 


Planet. 

Satellite. 

Centrifugal    Force,    calculated 
from  data  of  Babinet's  criterion, 
present  orbital  centrifugal  force 
being  unity. 

Density  of  Central  Body, 
when  expanded  to  fill  or- 
bit, that  of  atmospheric 
air  at  sea    level    being 
unity. 

The  Earth  .... 
Mars     

The  Moon 
Phobos 

0.00005657 
0001612 

0.01965 
1151. 

Deimos 

0000644 

7305 

Tuoiter  . 

V 

0034408 

58.93 

I 

0  014694 

4.66 

II 

0009277 

1.15 

III 

0.005820 

0.285 

IV 

0003323 

0.0523 

VI 

0  0005416 

0.000232 

VII 

00005217 

0.000208 

VIII 

0  0002254 

0.0000169 

Saturn 

Inner  Ring 

0.1435 

Mimas 

0  048254 

16.45 

Enceladus 

0  037651 

7.61 

Tethys 

0  030436 

4.11 

Dione 

0  023772 

1.96 

Rhea 

0  017017 

0.717 

Titan 

0.0073449 

0.0576 

Hyperion 

0  0060716 

0.0324 

lapetus 

0.0025205 

0.00232 

Phoebe 

0.0006962 

0.000049 

Uranus  

Ariel 

0.0055888 

2.40 

Umbriel 

00040111 

0.88 

Titania 

0  0024454 

0.200 

Oberon 

0  0018287 

0.082 

Neptune  

Satellite 

0.0017177 

0.43 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  centrifugal  force  varies  as  the 
square  of  the  velocity  divided  by  the  radius.  Thus  in  the  case  of 
the  earth,  actual  revolution  in  the  orbit  occupies  one  year,  whereas 
the  hypothetical  nebulous  sun  expanded  to  fill  the  earth's  orbit 
requires  3,192  years  for  a  rotation;  and  the  rotational  centrifugal 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  171 

force  therefore  is  only  1  :  (3,192)2  of  what  is  required  to  detach  the 
earth,  or  less  than  a  ten  millionth  part.  In  the  case  of  Neptune, 
the  calculated  time  of  rotation  for  the  expanded  central  nebula 
by  Babinet's  criterion,  is  2,888,000  years,  whereas  Neptune  actu- 
ally revolves  in  165  years.  The  calculated  time  of  rotation  is  thus 
17,500  longer  than  the  observed  time  of  revolution;  and  the 
rotational  centrifugal  force  is  therefore  only  1:  (17,500)2  or  1:306,- 
250,000  of  the  centrifugal  force  required  to  detach  Neptune. 

In  view  of  these  facts  we  know  that  the  planets  never  were 
detached  from  the  sun  by  acceleration  of  rotation  as  held  by 
Laplace  and  long  believed  by  astronomers;  but  on  the  contrary 
that  they  were  formed  independently,  at  a  great  distance,  and 
have  since  approached  the  sun  as  their  orbits  have  been  made 
smaller  and  rounder  and  rounder  under  the  secular  action  of  a 
resisting  medium. 

In  regard  to  the  satellites,  the  case  most  favorable  to  the 
detachment  theory  is  offered  by  the  inner  ring  of  Saturn,  but  even 
here  the  rotating  planet,  when  expanded  to  fill  the  ring,  gives  only 
one-seventh  of  the  centrifugal  force  required  for  detachment.  So 
that  the  theory  of  detachment  is  wholly  given  up,  not  only  for  the 
planets,  but  also  for  all  the  satellites  of  the  solar  system.  More- 
over, the  retrograde  satellites  of  Jupiter,  Saturn  and  Neptune  are 
easily  explained  by  the  modern  capture  theory,  while  they  cannot 
be  harmonized  with  the  old  nebular  hypothesis  of  Laplace,  which 
is  therefore  quite  abandoned  by  all  recent  investigators.* 

*  These  statements  are  positive,  because  Babinet's  criterion,  based  on  the 
conservation  of  areas,  is  incontestable,  having  in  the  rotation  of  bodies  the  same 
dynamical  rigor  that  the  law  of  gravitation  has  for  the  orbital  motions  of  the 
planets.  Curiously  enough  prominent  astronomers  occasionally  overlook  the 
decisive  import  of  these  elementary  mechanical  principles.  Thus  in  POPULAR 
ASTRONOMY,  for  October,  1911,  p.  467,  Professor  E.  B.  Frost,  Director  of  the  Yerkes 
Observatory,  is  led  to  the  sad  conclusion  that  "no  adequate  substitute  has  been 
proposed"  for  the  abandoned  theory  of  Laplace.  He  adds  that  these  views  are 
shared  by  friends  whose  opinions  he  values,  showing  that  they  are  quite  unaware  of 
the  notable  progress  recently  made,  and  that  obscurity  regarding  the  significance 
of  this  dynamical  principle  still  is  widespread,  although  carefully  treated  by  me 
three  years  ago  when  I  first  called  attention  to  Babinet's  neglected  work  of  1861, 
and  more  fully  developed  in  my  Researches,  Vol.  II,  a  copy  of  which  was  presented 
to  Professor  Frost  in  October,  1910. 


172         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

There  are  at  least  three  good  reasons  why  the  capture  of 
satellites  is  inevitable:  (1)  The  planetary  rotations  are  not 
rapid  enough  to  throw  the  bodies  off,  even  if  none  of  them  revolved 
in  the  contrary  direction,  as  observed  in  the  case  of  the  outer 
satellites  of  the  systems  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn.  (2)  The  density 
of  the  expanded  central  globes  would  in  all  cases  be  too  small  to 
exert  any  sensible  hydrostatic  pressure  outward,  so  that  unless 
the  angular  rotation  gave  adequate  centrifugal  force,  the  deficiency 
could  not  be  supplied  by  hydrostatic  pressure  from  the  center. 
(3)  It  is  found  that  if  set  in  revolution  with  the  velocity  assigned 
by  Babinet's  criterion  the  satellite  in  every  case  would  fall  into 
the  planet  before  half  a  revolution  was  accomplished,  (cf.  Proc. 
Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  Vol.  XLIX,  No.  197,  Nov.,  1910,  p.  356) .  It  there- 
fore follows  incontestably  that  the  satellites  can  have  been  set 
revolving  in  their  orbits  only  by  capture,  or  addition  from  with- 
out, which  is  clearly  indicated  also  by  the  retrograde  motion  of 
the  outer  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn. 

V.    How  THE  SATELLITES  WERE  CAPTURED. 

In  1836  the  celebrated  German  mathematician  Jacobi  com- 
municated to  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  an  integral  of  the 
problem  of  three  bodies  in  the  restricted  case  where  the  system  is 
made  up  of  a  sun  attended  by  a  planet  revolving  in  a  circular 
orbit;  and  the  third  body  a  particle  of  insensible  mass.  This  is 
the  case  which  is  of  special  interest  in  Cosmogony,  and  here  it  has 
found  its  widest  application.  In  1877  the  work  of  Jacobi  was 
much  extended  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Hill  in  his  researches  on  the  Lunar 
Theory,  which  have  been  the  starting  point  of  the  profound  re- 
searches of  Poincare,  Darwin  and  others  on  periodic  orbits,  and 
related  topics  in  celestial  mechanics. 

Dr.  Hill  showed  that  in  the  restricted  problem  of  three  bodies, 
implied  in  Jacobi' s  integral,  there  is  a  partition  of  the  whole  space 
into  three  parts, —  one  about  each  of  the  large  bodies,  the  sun  and 
planet,  and  a  larger  domain  enclosing  both  bodies  —  within  which 
the  power  of  control  over  the  particle  is  vested  in  the  two  bodies 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  173 

individually  and  collectively,  respectively.  The  closed  surface 
about  the  earth  includes  the  orbit  of  the  moon,  and  the  orbits  of 
the  other  satellites  in  like  manner  are  within  the  closed  surfaces 
about  their  several  planets;  and  Dr.  Hill  remarks  that  this  ar- 
rangement is  necessary  to  secure  stability.  (Hill's  Collected 
Mathematical  Works,  Vol.  I,  p.  330).  If  a  satellite  is  once  within 
this  region,  with  the  surface  of  zero  velocity  closed  about  it,  it 
cannot  escape,  but  will  always  remain  attached  to  the  planet,  and 
its  radius  vector  will  have  a  superior  limit.  How  the  moon  and 
other  satellites  came  within  these  closed  regions  Dr.  Hill  did  not 
inquire;  and  subsequent  investigators  appear  to  have  supposed 
that  as  these  bodies  cannot  now  escape  from  their  planets,  so  also 
they  cannot  have  come  in  from  a  remote  distance,  but  must  have 
originated  where  they  now  are.  This  is  the  view  put  forth  by 
Moulton  in  his  discussion  of  Professor  W.  H.  Pickering's  sug- 
gestion that  Phoebe  had  been  captured  by  Saturn  (Astrophysical 
Journal,  October,  1905,  p.  178)  ;  but  such  reasoning  is  easily  shown 
to  be  erroneous  by  the  following  considerations:— 

Jacobi's  integral,  as  originally  given  by  him,  is  based  on  the 
differential  equations  for  unrestricted  motion  in  empty  space, 
and  no  account  is  taken  of  the  additional  terms  which  must  be 
added  to  the  differential  equations  of  the  motion  of  the  sun,  planet, 
and  particle,  when  the  motion  is  very  slightly  conditioned  by  the 
introduction  of  a  nebular  resisting  medium,  such  as  existed  in  the 
early  history  of  our  system,  and  is  now  observed  to  be  widely  dif- 
fused throughout  Nature.  Jacobi's  original  integral,  therefore, 
requires  the  addition  of  a  secular  term  to  represent  the  actual 
movement  of  a  sun,  planet,  and  particle;  and  the  complete  ex- 
pression for  any  particle  whose  coordinates  are  x-,  y{  zif  becomes: 


The  secular  term  a,  t-,  makes  the  constant  d  increase  with 
the  time. 


174         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Now  the  surfaces  of  zero  relative  velocity,  which  define  the 
closed  spaces  about  the  planets,  have  larger  values  of  d  the  nearer 
we  approach  to  the  sun  or  planet.  This  is  easily  seen  in  the  ac- 
companying plate  from  Darwin's  celebrated  memoir  on  Periodic 
Orbits  (Acta  Mathematica,  Vol.  XXI).  When  the  particle  or 
satellite  revolves  against  resistance,  therefore,  the  second  member 


CURVES  OF  ZERO  VELOCITY  (DARWIN) 

This  diagram  illustrates  the  hour-glass  shaped  space  through  which  the 

particle  may  move  and  drop  down  nearer  the  sun  or  planet, 

till  it  becomes  captured  by  one  of  the  larger  bodies. 

of  (1)  increases,  and  there  is  a  secular  shrinkage  of  the  surface  of 
zero  relative  velocity.  Accordingly  the  particle  drops  down  nearer 
and  nearer  these  centers,  and  the  surface  finally  becomes  closed, 
leaving  it  no  longer  free  to  move  about  both  bodies  in  the  hour- 
glass shaped  space,  as  formerly,  but  restricted  to  the  sphere  of 
influence  controlled  by  the  sun  or  planet  individually,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  particle  which  once  revolved  about  both  the  sun 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  175 

and  planet  can  no  longer  do  so,  but  becomes  an  inferior  planet 
(satellite  of  the  sun)  or  a  satellite  of  the  planet. 

This  is  how  the  satellites  of  the  solar  system  were  captured. 
At  first  they  moved  principally  under  the  attraction  of  the  sun, 
and  could  pass  from  the  sun's  to  the  planet's  domain,  through  the 
neck  of  the  hour-glass  shaped  space  connecting  the  two  spheres  of 
influence.  When  the  neck  is  narrow,  Darwin  says  that  a  particle 
which  passes  from  the  sun's  to  the  planet's  control  may  revolve 
about  it  hundreds  of  times  before  quitting  the  planet's  sphere  to 
return  again  to  the  sun's  control.  And  if  resistance  is  meanwhile 
encountered,  so  that  the  neck  of  the  surface  of  zero  velocity  be- 
comes closed,  it  is  clear  that  the  particle  never  will  quit  the  sphere 
of  the  planet's  control,  but  will  abide  there  permanently  as  a 
satellite. 

Thus  it  incontestably  follows  that  the  satellites  of  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  and  other  planets  formerly  moved  about  the  sun,  and 
since  they  were  captured  have  had  their  orbits  reduced  in  size  and 
rounded  up  under  the  secular  action  of  the  resisting  medium  for- 
merly pervading  our  solar  system.  Satellites  may  cross  over 
the  line  SJ  before  coming  completely  under  the  planet's  control, 
in  which  case  they  will  move  retrograde.  In  such  cases  the  neck 
connecting  the  two  spaces  is  extremely  narrow.  But  as  the  neck 
usually  is  not  so  narrow  as  to  produce  crossing  satellites,  most  of 
them  naturally  move  direct,  in  accordance  with  observation.  This 
is  the  reason  also  why  the  planets  have  direct  rotations  on  their 
axes.  The  planets  have  in  no  case  been  inverted,  as  some  have 
recently  supposed,  in  order  to  account  for  the  retrograde  motion 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn. 

VI.    CAPTURE  THEORY  OF  SATELLITES  INDEPENDENTLY  CON- 
FIRMED BY  BROWN  AND  POINCARE. 

The  above  discussion  is  substantially  that  given  by  the  writer 
in  the  Publications  of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  the  Pacific  for 
August,  1909.  The  subject  has  since  been  treated  more  in  detail 
and  from  a  slightly  different  point  of  view  by  Professor  E.  W. 


176         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Brown,  in  the  Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society 
for  March,  1911,  p.  453.  Brown  considers  the  oscillations  of  an 
asteroid  about  the  triangular  points,  where  Lagrange  showed  that 
there  are  particular  solutions  of  the  problem  of  three  bodies,  and 
a  small  body  may  revolve  in  stability  when  the  asteroid  is  sub- 
jected to  small  disturbances,  as  under  the  action  of  a  resisting 
medium.  Brown  shows  that  it  will  revolve  in  periodic  orbits 
about  the  triangular  point,  but  the  constant  C  of  the  Jacobian 
integral  will  steadily  increase  and  the  periodic  orbits  increase  in 
size;  and  finally  it  will  reach  a  critical  stage  corresponding  to  the 
equilibrium  point  in  opposition  to  Jupiter,  where  Lagrange  showed 
that  another  particular  solution  of  the  problem  of  three  bodies 
exists.  Under  disturbances  all  these  solutions  are  unstable,  and 
for  values  of  C  well  beyond  this  critical  value,  Brown  adds  that 
the  orbits  "consist  (1)  of  an  inner  planetary  orbit  making  com- 
plete revolutions  round  the  sun  in  the  positive  sense;  (2)  of  an 
outer  planetary  orbit  making  complete  revolutions  round  the  sun 
in  the  negative  sense  relative  to  the  moving  axes;  (3)  of  a  satellite 
revolving  round  Jupiter  in  the  positive  sense."  In  other  words, 
an  asteroid  passing  through  these  equilibrium  points  with  suitable 
velocity  corresponding  to  the  critical  value  of  C,  may  pass  under 
the  control  of  Jupiter  and  become  a  satellite  of  that  planet,  as  I 
demonstrated  in  1909  (A.N.  4341-42). 

Finally  it  remains  to  add,  as  already  pointed  out,  that  the 
capture  of  satellites  has  been  treated  also  by  Poincare  in  his  course 
at  the  Sorbonne  during  the  present  year,  which  is  being  published 
and  will  appear  in  November.  Astronomers  and  mathematicians 
naturally  will  be  interested  in  the  forthcoming  work  of  this  great 
master  of  celestial  mechanics.  In  a  recent  letter  he  tells  me  that 
he  insists  on  the  capture  of  planets  as  satellites  under  the  action 
of  a  resisting  medium. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  as  far  back  as  1906  Professor  Elis 
Stromgren,  now  of  Copenhagen,  while  occupied  with  the  motion  of 
three  bodies  made  a  very  similar  investigation  of  the  problem  of 
cusps  and  loops,  and  obtained  some  remarkable  results  (Astron. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  177 

Nachr.  No.  4155)  which  are  now  found  to  confirm  the  capture  of 
satellites. 

From  this  brief  outline  it  will  be  seen  that  the  capture  theory  of 
satellites  is  now  established  and  very  generally  accepted  by  the  lead- 
ing authorities  in  this  difficult  branch  of  mathematical  astronomy. 

VII.    THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  RETROGRADE  REVOLUTIONS  OF  THE 

SATELLITES  AND  OF  THE  DIRECT  ROTATIONS  OF 

THE  PLANETS  ON  THEIR  AXES. 

In  my  work  of  1909,  quoted  above,  it  was  shown  how  the 
retrograde  motion  of  the  satellite  could  arise,  by  the  body  crossing 
over  the  line  S  /  in  passing  through  the  neck  of  the  hour-glass 
space  before  it  came  under  the  control  of  the  planet.  It  may  arise 
also  in  other  ways.  We  have  seen  above  that  in  passing  through 
the  equilibrium  point,  in  opposition  to  Jupiter,  the  satellite  usually 
will  move  direct,  because  there  is  a  space  of  finite  extent  in  this 
region  corresponding  to  the  critical  value  of  the  Jacobian  integral, 
and  unless  the  disturbance  is  considerable,  the  gradual  transition 
will  give  a  direct  revolution;  but  if  the  disturbance  be  larger,  at 
this  critical  stage,  the  satellite  may  be  driven  beyond  the  center 
of  the  equilibrium  point  and  set  revolving  in  a  retrograde  direction. 
This  result  is  very  similar  to  the  case  (2)  above  quoted  from 
Brown's  paper,  where  he  concludes  that  the  asteroid  may  make 
complete  revolutions  around  the  sun  in  the  negative  sense  relative 
to  the  moving  axes. 

We  need  not  dwell  at  greater  length  on  the  motions  of  satel- 
lites. It  is  obvious  that  they  may  move  either  direct  or  retro- 
grade, as  first  pointed  out  by  me  in  1909.  But  if  most  of  the  satel- 
lites have  direct  motion,  those  which  are  retrograde  will  be  likely 
to  be  destroyed,  unless  they  are  so  situated  as  to  escape  serious 
collision.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  retrograde  satellites  of  Jupiter 
and  Saturn  are  on  the  outside  of  their  systems,  where  they  could 
easily  survive;  and  this  no  doubt  is  the  secret  of  their  escape  from 
destruction.  Probably  they  were  captured  quite  late  in  the  history 
of  the  solar  system,  when  the  resisting  medium  was  relatively 


178         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

ineffective,  as  shown  by  the  rather  large  surviving  eccentricities 
of  their  orbits. 

And  now  just  as  the  satellites  usually  have  direct  orbital 
revolutions,  so  also  do  the  meteorites  and  other  small  masses  of 
cosmical  dust  circulating  in  the  vortices  about  the  planets,  of 
which  the  satellites  alone  are  large  enough  and  bright  enough  to 
be  visible  in  our  telescopes.  When  swarms  of  this  dust  collide 
with  the  planet,  therefore,  the  tendency  is  to  give  the  globe  a 
direct  rotation  on  its  axis,  because  the  number  of  particles  having 
direct  revolutions  greatly  predominates  over  those  having  retro- 
grade revolution.  This  is  the  secret  of  the  direct  rotations  of  the 
planets  on  their  axes;  and  whenever  the  down-pour  of  dust  is 
appreciable  the  axial  rotations  are  being  accelerated.  It  is  not 
strange  therefore  that  the  sun,  Jupiter  and  Saturn  have  equatorial 
accelerations,  which  long  proved  bewildering  to  astronomers. 

VIII.    THE  OBLIQUITIES  OF  THE  PLANETS. 

The  problem  of  the  obliquities  of  the  planets  long  presented 
great  difficulty  to  the  astronomer,  and  was  not  solved  till  1908, 
when  it  was  shown  by  the  present  writer  that  it  is  determined  by 
the  capture  and  absorption  of  small  bodies  revolving  about  the 
sun  in  planes  nearly  coinciding  with  the  orbits  of  the  planets.  The 
countless  collisions  of  these  small  bodies  with  a  planet  like  the 
earth  are  illustrated  by  the  meteors  vaporized  in  our  atmosphere 
to  the  number  of  over  a  billion  daily.  In  a  century  this  dust  would 
make  a  layer  a  millimeter  thick  all  over  the  globe.  The  same 
down-pour  of  cosmical  dust  occurs  on  the  other  planets,  and  often 
times  the  masses  are  larger  than  those  now  swept  up  by  the  earth, 
as  we  see  by  the  embedded  satellites  which  produced  the  lunar 
craters. 

As  they  revolve  about  the  sun  in  orbits,  which  on  the  average 
are  not  much  inclined  to  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  the  tendency  is  to 
tilt  the  earth's  axis  into  a  position  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic.  The  obliquity  thus  tends  to  vanish,  as  illustrated 
by  Jupiter,  the  greatest  of  the  planets,  which  has  thus  acquired  a 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  179 

very  small  obliquity  of  some  3°,  from  the  capture  and  absorption 
of  comets,  asteroids  and  satellites.  The  almost  zero  obliquity  of 
Jupiter  shows  the  normal  development  of  the  process.  As  a  test 
of  the  theory  it  was  shown  by  actual  calculation  that  Saturn  would 
have  the  present  obliquity  of  some  28°  nearly  destroyed  if  the  mass 
of  that  planet  were  trebled,  to  become  equal  to  that  of  Jupiter, 
by  the  same  process  of  the  capture  and  absorption  of  small  bodies 
moving  near  the  plane  of  the  planet's  orbit.  The  increase  of  the 
obliquities  from  Jupiter  to  Saturn  and  Uranus  therefore  is  natural, 
and  in  accordance  with  established  theory.  Within  Jupiter's 
orbit  the  obliquities  decrease  from  Mars  (24.5°)  to  the  earth  (23.5°) 
and  Venus  (12°  or  15°);  and  the  rotation  periods  also  decrease 
from  24h  37m  22s  in  the  case  of  Mars,  to  23h  56m  4s  (sidereal  day) 
for  the  earth,  and  23h  21m  for  Venus.  The  order  thus  exist- 
ing among  the  terrestrial  planets  shows  that  they  have  been 
formed  by  a  very  regular  cause  which  has  produced  harmonious 
effects. 

When  the  nuclei  of  the  planets  were  first  formed  far  from  the 
sun,  they  may  have  rotated  in  almost  any  planes,  determined 
by  the  collisions  previously  experienced;  but  as  they  drew  nearer 
the  sun  the  rotations  became  direct  and  more  and  more  harmon- 
ious, as  now  observed.  Beyond  a  doubt  this  is  the  true  explana- 
tion of  the  obliquities  of  the  planets  of  our  solar  system;  and 
similar  laws  operate  to  establish  corresponding  obliquities  for  the 
planets  revolving  about  the  fixed  stars  generally.  Accordingly 
it  follows  that  the  planets  attending  the  fixed  stars  have  seasons 
and  alternation  of  day  and  night,  such  as  we  are  familiar  with,  and 
therefore  they  are  habitable  by  living  beings  like  those  observed 
on  the  earth. 

IX.    THE  CAPTURE  OF  THE  MOON  BY  THE  EARTH. 

The  case  of  the  terrestrial  moon  is  of  special  interest,  because 
it  is  relatively  by  far  the  largest  of  all  our  satellites,  and  was  for- 
merly supposed  by  Lord  Kelvin  and  Sir  George  Darwin  to  have 
had  an  exceptional  origin.  But  it  was  shown  by  me  in  1909  (A.N., 


180         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

4343)  that  the  moon  was  formed  like  the  other  satellites,  and  is  in 
fact  a  planet  which  the  earth  captured  from  space,  just  as  the  other 
satellites  were  captured  by  their  several  planets.  We  shall  not 
here  go  into  the  details  of  the  moon's  origin,  beyond  pointing  out 
the  reasons  why  a  terrestrial  origin  for  the  moon  is  impossible. 
(1)  The  rupture  of  the  earth's  figure  of  equilibrium,  which  Dar- 
win assumed  to  account  for  the  origin  of  the  moon,  postulates  a 
primitive  rotation  in  less  than  three  hours,  or  nine  times  faster 
than  at  present.  From  the  causes  which  produce  planetary  rota- 
tions, as  set  forth  above,  we  know  that  no  such  rapid  rotation 
could  have  existed  in  the  case  of  the  earth.  (2)  Even  if  such  rapid 
rotation  had  existed,  the  matter  detached  from  the  earth  would 
have  taken  the  form  of  a  swarm  of  small  bodies,  and  these  meteor- 
ites never  could  have  united  into  one  mass,  as  now  observed  in 
our  actual  moon.  (3)  The  satellites  of  the  other  planets  are 
recognized  to  be  captured  bodies,  and  the  same  process  naturally 
will  have  operated  in  giving  the  earth  a  satellite,  even  if  it  is  of 
exceptionally  large  mass.  It  should  be  especially  noted  that  the 
large  mass  presents  no  difficulty  to  the  capture  theory.  The  anom- 
aly lies  rather  in  the  small  size  of  the  earth,  since  several  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  are  fully  as  large  as  the  moon,  while 
those  of  Uranus  and  Neptune  are  not  enormously  smaller.  (4) 
In  Darwin's  celebrated  graphical  method  for  tracing  the  moon 
back  to  the  earth,  it  is  found  to  be  impossible  to  bring  the  two 
globes  close  together,  because  at  nearest  approach  a  space  of  over 
4,000  miles  intervenes  between  the  surfaces,  which  cannot  be 
bridged  over.  This  contradiction  to  the  terrestrial  theory  indi- 
cates that  it  is  vitiated  by  an  error,  and  must  be  unconditionally 
given  up. 

For  these  four  weighty  reasons  we  conclude  that  our  moon 
can  be  nothing  else  than  a  planet  which  came  to  us  from  the  heaven- 
ly spaces.  It  follows  also  that  the  earth  always  did  rotate  in  about 
the  same  time  as  at  present,  and  has  never  suffered  retardation 
from  about  three  hours  as  Darwin  inferred.  This  simplifies  very 
considerably  many  problems  of  Geology,  and  brings  the  Cosmogony 


THE  MOON,  TEN  DAYS  OLD.  PHOTOGRAPHED  BY  LOEWRY  AND  PUISEUX  AT 

THE  PARIS  OBSERVATORY,  FEBRUARY  23,  1896. 
Naked  Eye  View.     (From  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910,  Plate  XI.) 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  181 

of  the  earth  and  moon  into  harmony  with  that  found  in  the  rest 
of  the  solar  system,  and  in  the  sidereal  universe. 

X.    THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  LUNAR  CRATERS  AND  MARIA. 

Ever  since  Galileo's  discovery  of  the  mountains  on  the  moon, 
it  has  been  a  problem  for  astronomers  to  explain  the  craters  and 
other  phenomena  on  the  lunar  surface.  Notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  lunar  craters  are  totally  different  from  those  on  the  earth, 
it  has  been  believed  until  very  recently  that  they  had  a  volcanic 
origin.  It  turns  out,  however,  that  the  lunar  craters  are  due  to 
impact  of  smaller  bodies  against  the  lunar  surface;  and  this  ex- 
plains the  sunken  character  of  the  craters,  which  are  all  below  the 
normal  level  of  the  lunar  surface;  the  small  volume  of  the  walls 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  crater  basins;  the  steepness  of  the 
inner  wall,  while  the  outer  one  has  a  more  gradual  slope;  the  cen- 
tral peaks  which  are  residues  of  the  satellites  that  produced  the 
craters;  the  superposition  of  one  crater  over  another,  and  many 
other  phenomena  which  show  that  impact,  and  not  volcanic  action, 
has  produced  the  mountains  on  the  surface  of  the  moon.  In  the 
same  way  it  is  shown  that  the  Maria  are  due  to  conflagrations  which 
have  melted  down  to  a  dead  level  considerable  areas  of  the  lunar 
surface,  only  the  more  prominent  walls  here  and  there  surviving 
as  "ghost  craters." 

It  is  a  very  remarkable  fact  that  can  scarcely  escape  the  notice 
of  the  sagacious  historian  of  the  future  that  prior  to  my  work  on 
Earthquakes  and  Mountain  Formation  (Proc.  Am.  Philos.  Soc., 
Philadelphia,  1906-8),  terrestrial  mountains  were  erroneously 
explained  by  the  secular  cooling  and  contraction  of  the  earth, 
whereas  they  are  really  formed  by  the  leakage  of  the  oceans  and  the 
expulsion  of  lava  under  the  land,  and  the  mountain  ridges  therefore 
run  as  great  walls  along  the  border  of  the  ocean,  as  in  the  typical 
case  of  the  Andes  in  South  America.  The  current  explanation  of 
terrestrial  mountain  formation  was  thus  entirely  erroneous.  The 
new  theory  that  our  mountains  are  formed  by  the  sea  has,  however, 
already  been  very  generally  accepted.  On  the  other  hand,  the 


182         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

lunar  craters  were  supposed  to  be  of  volcanic  origin,  whereas  they 
really  are  due  to  impact.  Thus,  wonderful  as  it  may  seem,  the 
causes  assigned  in  both  cases  were  erroneous. 

Besides  the  evidence  of  general  character  above  cited  the 
theory  as  to  the  origin  of  the  lunar  craters  by  impact  now  rests  on 
an  absolute  proof  of  mathematical  kind  as  follows.  It  is  shown 
by  the  researches  of  Lehman-Filhe's  (A.N.  3479-80)  and  Strom- 
gren  (A.N.  3897)  that  increase  of  the  central  mass  of  the  planet 
by  the  downfall  of  cosmical  dust  will  decrease  the  mean  distance 
of  the  satellite,  but  not  the  eccentricity  of  its  orbit.  It  is  shown 
in  my  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910,  that  the  eccentricity  can  be  dimin- 
ished only  by  the  action  of  a  resisting  medium  such  as  operated 
in  the  capture  of  the  satellites.  As  the  eccentricities  of  the  satel- 
lite orbits  usually  are  evanescent,  showing  that  they  have  been 
destroyed  by  the  action  of  a  resisting  medium,  we  should  expect 
the  moon's  surface  to  bear  witness  to  this  process  of  cosmical  bom- 
bardment, by  which  the  orbits  of  the  satellites  have  been  rounded 
up.  Thus  indentations  analogous  to  the  lunar  craters  ought  to 
exist,  and  as  they  are  all  of  one  type,  their  origin  must  be  assigned 
to  the  impact  of  smaller  satellites  against  the  lunar  surface.  Our 
proof  of  the  origin  of  the  lunar  craters  is  therefore  essentially  an 
absolute  proof  which  admits  of  no  dispute. 

If  it  be  asked  why  indentations  similar  to  the  lunar  craters 
were  not  produced  on  the  earth,  our  answer  is  that  such  terrestrial 
craters  due  to  impact  did  exist  before  Geological  History  began, 
but  they  have  since  been  quite  obliterated  by  the  effects  of  the 
oceans  and  atmosphere,  while  modern  terrestrial  mountains  of  a 
totally  different  type  have  since  been  developed  along  the  borders 
of  our  seas  by  the  leakage  of  the  oceans.  These  manifold  errors 
afford  us  an  impressive  warning  as  to  the  worthlessness  of  tradi- 
tional opinion,  because  so  much  of  our  reasoning  in  physical  science 
heretofore  has  been  based  on  false  premises. 

Finally  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  are  variable,  as  if  covered  by  maria  like  our  own  moon,  so 
that  the  conflagrations  which  melted  areas  and  produced  maria 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  183 

on  our  satellite  have  also  occured  elsewhere,  in  accordance  with 
the  requirements  of  this  simple  theory. 

XL    ORIGINAL  EXTENT  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM  AND  THE  EX- 
ISTENCE OF  PLANETS  BEYOND  NEPTUNE. 

Babinet's  criterion  shows  beyond  doubt  that  the  nuclei  of 
the  planets  were  formed  at  a  great  distance  from  the  sun  and  have 
since  had  their  orbits  decreased  in  size,  largely  by  the  increase  of 
the  sun's  mass,  and  rounded  up  into  almost  perfect  circles,  by  the 
action  of  a  resisting  medium.  As  the  planets  were  not  thrown  off 
from  the  sun,  this  is  the  only  possible  way  in  which  they  can  have 
been  set  revolving  in  such  singularly  circular  orbits.  Moreover 
since  it  is  proved  in  my  Researches,  Vol.  II.  and  confirmed  by  the 
investigations  of  Stromgren,  that  the  comets  are  surviving  wisps 
of  nebulosity  coming  to  us  from  the  outer  shell  of  our  ancient 
nebula,  there  is  thus  developed  an  independent  line  of  argument 
showing  that  the  solar  nebula  was  originally  of  vast  extent  with  a 
radius  of  from  10,000  to  50,000  radii  of  the  earth's  orbit. 

The  proof  found  in  Babinet's  criterion  that  the  nuclei  of  the 
planets  originated  at  a  great  distance  from  the  sun  and  have  since 
approached  the  center  is  thus  confirmed  by  the  elliptical  theory 
of  comet  orbits;  and  thus  a  connection  is  established  between  the 
planets  now  near  the  sun  and  the  comets  still  receding  to  great 
distances.  In  fact  the  planets  were  built  up  in  the  nebula  by  the 
gathering  in  of  cosmical  dust,  such  as  we  observe  in  meteor  showers 
raining  down  on  us  from  disintegrated  comets;  and  thus  all  the 
matter  now  in  the  planets  once  was  in  the  solar  nebula  in  the  form 
of  comets.  By  the  destruction  of  countless  comets,  the  planets 
have  been  built  up  to  their  present  dimensions,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  have  neared  the  sun  and  been  made  to  revolve  in  orbits 
which  are  so  nearly  circular,  that  the  Greek  philosophers  believed 
that  the  Deity  had  chosen  the  circle  for  the  paths  of  the  planets, 
because  the  ancient  geometers  regarded  the  circle  as  a  perfect 
figure. 


184         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

From  these  considerations  it  is  evident  that  our  planetary 
system  extends  much  beyond  Neptune,  and  several  of  the  unseen 
planets  revolving  in  this  remote  region  of  space  may  yet  be  dis- 
covered by  observation.  The  orbital  motion,  however,  will  be 
very  slow,  and  if  the  search  is  attempted  by  photography  the  ex- 
posures will  have  to  be  long  and  perhaps  extended  to  successive 
days.  Neptune's  orbit  is  so  round  that  we  can  no  more  think  of 
our  system  terminating  at  this  limit  than  we  can  imagine  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  confined  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  old 
satellites  discovered  by  Galileo. 


XII.  NATURE  OF  OUR  SYSTEM  OF  COMETS — ELLIPTICAL  ORBITS 
PREDICTED  BY  NEWTON— RESEARCHES  OF  STROMGREN. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  conclusion  reached  by  the 
writer  in  1909  that  the  orbits  of  all  comets  are  elliptical,  because 
they  are  the  residue  of  the  ancient  nebula  which  formed  our  sys- 
tem and  thus  continue  to  come  to  us  from  the  vast  outer  shell 
which  still  survives  after  the  interior  of  the  nebula  has  been  de- 
stroyed in  forming  the  central  sun  and  planetary  system.  By  the 
researches  of  Stromgren  this  is  now  definitely  proved  to  be  the 
true  origin  of  our  system  of  comets. 

Historically  the  problem  of  the  significance  of  the  comets 
presented  great  difficulty.  In  1687  Newton  remarked  in  the 
Prindpia  that  the  comets  revolve  in  very  elongated  orbits,  which 
are  really  ellipses,  but  so  eccentric  as  to  resemble  parabolas  in  the 
region  near  the  sun;  and  are  diffused  indifferently  over  the  celestial 
sphere,  so  that  they  are  not  confined  to  the  Zodiac,  like  the  planets. 
He  adds  that  while  the  law  of  gravitation  will  account  for  the 
motions  of  these  bodies,  it  will  not  explain  how  they  came  to  be 
started  in  such  widely  dispersed  orbits.  The  formation  of  our 
system  from  a  nebula  made  up  of  elements  expelled  from  the  stars 
of  the  Milky  Way  and  thus  gathered  together  from  all  directions 
in  space  is  the  only  possible  explanation  of  the  system  of  comets. 
It  thus  points  to  the  general  operation  of  repulsive  forces  in  Nature, 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  THEORY  OF  COMETS  DEVELOPED  BY 
T.  J.  J.  SEE. 

The  lower  figure  illustrates  the  vast  system  of  small  bodies  circulating  about  the  Sun 
and  constituting  the  outer  shell  of  the  primordial  nebula.  The  upper  figure  from  Lowell's 
"Solar  System,"  shows  the  orbits  of  a  few  actual  comets  which  have  appeared  in  the  short 
interval  since  Newton's  famous  comet  of  1680. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  185 

and  constitutes  an  impressive  illustration  of  the  formation  of 
nebulae  gathered  from  a  system  right  at  hand. 

This  theory  of  the  origin  of  our  system  of  comets  has  been 
confirmed  by  the  researches  of  Leuschner  (1906)  and  Fayet  (1906) 
and  more  especially  of  Stromgren  (Vierteljahrsschrift,  October, 
1910),  who  subjected  the  supposed  hyperbolic  comets  to  a  critical 
test,  and  found  every  one  of  them  to  be  elliptic;  so  that  we  have 
to  abandon  the  view  long  held  that  some  of  these  bodies  move  in 
parabolas  and  hyperbolas.  After  two  centuries  of  wandering  in 
the  wilderness  we  thus  return  to  Newton's  view  of  1687.  And  the 
reason  for  the  elliptical  orbits  of  comets  is  to  be  found  in  the  nature 
of  the  system  of  comets,  wisps  of  nebulosity  coming  from  the  outer 
shell,  as  the  surviving  residue  of  the  ancient  nebula  which  formed 
our  solar  system. 

XIII.    UNIVERSALITY  OF  REPULSIVE  FORCES  IN  NATURE  ESTAB- 
LISHED BY  HERSCHEL'S  ARGUMENT  REGARDING  THE 
OPERATION  OF  CENTRAL  POWERS  IN  THE 
CLUSTERS  AND  NEBULA. 

In  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  for 
1789,  1811,  and  1814  Sir  William  Herschel  has  developed  a  power- 
ful and  celebrated  argument  for  the  operation  of  central  powers 
in  the  formation  of  star  clusters  and  nebulae.  The  star  clusters 
tend  to  globular  figures  and  increase  in  density  toward  their 
centers;  and  the  same  tendency  is  shown  to  operate  in  the  nebulae, 
many  of  which  seem  to  be  made  up  of  concentric  spherical  shells 
of  uniform  brightness,  but  accumulating  towards  the  center  in 
such  a  way  as  to  show  a  gradual  increase  of  density  with  maximum 
in  the  nucleus,  which  often  is  occupied  by  a  nebulous  star.  There 
are  thousands  of  these  objects,  all  following  the  same  law,  and  on 
the  uniformity  of  the  tendency  Herschel  founds  his  irresistible 
argument  for  the  operation  of  central  powers  in  shaping  and  mould- 
ing the  figures  of  sidereal  systems. 

Herschel's  discussion  is  so  convincing  that  we  need  not  dwell 
on  it  beyond  adding  that  if  now  we  exactly  reverse  his  argument 


186         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

we  obtain  at  once  a  most  comprehensive  proof  of  the  universal 
operation  of  repulsive  forces  in  Nature.  For  if  central  powers 
produce  the  observed  symmetrical  condensations,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  matter  now  condensed  was  formerly  diffused  somewhat 
equably  about  these  centers,  and  could  have  acquired  this  arrange- 
ment in  space  only  by  accumulation  from  all  directions:  and  there- 
fore at  an  earlier  period  the  matter  was  expelled  from  stars  lying 
in  all  directions  in  the  general  stratum  of  the  Milky  Way.  Ac- 
cordingly we  thus  obtain  a  most  satisfactory  proof  of  the  opera- 
tions of  repulsive  forces  throughout  Nature.  The  familiar  proofs 
of  repulsive  forces  supplied  by  the  solar  corona  and  by  the  tails 
of  comets  pointing  from  the  sun,  are  thus  supported  by  others 
drawn  from  the  system  of  comets  about  our  sun  and  from  the  star 
clusters  and  nebulae  in  every  part  of  the  sidereal  heavens. 


XIV.    ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  NEBULA  IN  CANOPIES  ON  EITHER 

SIDE  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY  DUE  TO  THE  ACTION 

OF  REPULSIVE  FORCES. 

If  repulsive  forces  are  everywhere  at  work  expelling  dust 
from  the  stars  for  the  formation  of  nebulae,  it  is  evident  that  as 
it  is  repelled  by  the  stars  it  will  tend  to  gather  especially  in  vacant 
regions  or  spaces  remote  from  the  stars,  and  should  accumulate 
with  maximum  density  near  the  poles  of  the  Milky  Way.  Thus 
have  arisen  the  great  canopies  of  nebulae  on  either  side  of  the 
Galaxy.  As  the  dust  now  forming  into  nebulae  slowly  develops 
into  stars,  they  drift  back  into  the  central  starry  stratum  of  the 
Milky  Way,  while  other  new  nebulae  take  their  places;  so  that 
the  arrangement  of  contrariety,  with  nebulae  on  either  side  of  the 
starry  stratum,  is  maintained  by  a  process  of  slow  circulation. 
The  observed  arrangement  of  the  nebulae  and  stars  in  the  sidereal 
universe  is  thus  the  outcome  of  the  grouping  of  the  stars  in  one 
great  stratum,  which  may  itself  be  the  effect  of  the  mutual  attrac- 
tions of  the  whole  mass  and  of  repulsive  forces  operating  over 
vast  time. 


ISOGRAPHIC  PROJECTION  OF  THE  NORTHERN  CELESTIAL  HEMISPHERE. 

The  nebulae  are  represented  by  dots,  the  clusters  by  crosses. 
(From  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910.) 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  187 

For  over  two  centuries  after  the  establishment  of  the  law  of 
universal  gravitation  by  Newton  in  1687,  philosophers  took  account 
of  attraction  only,  and  ignored  the  effects  of  repulsive  forces,  so 
that  the  natural  philosophy  of  the  heavens  was  essentially  incom- 
plete, being  but  half  developed.  In  more  recent  times  account 
has  been  taken  of  repulsive  forces  and  their  paramount  part  in 
dispersing  matter  for  the  formation  of  sidereal  systems,  and  the 
result  is  the  full  treatment  of  the  two  great  tendencies  in  nature, 
with  a  more  symmetrical  development  of  the  grand  science  of 
natural  philisophy. 

XV.    THE  UNIFORMITY  IN  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  CHEM- 
ICAL ELEMENTS  DISCOVERED  BY  HUGGINS  IN  1864  ALSO 
IMPLIES  THE  OPERATION  OF  REPULSIVE 
FORCES  IN  NATURE. 

The  beautiful  discovery  of  Sir  William  Huggins,  in  1864,  that 
the  chemical  elements  are  essentially  the  same  wherever  a  star 
twinkles,  may  be  said  also  to  point  to  repulsive  forces  in  Nature. 
For  if  these  were  not  incessantly  at  work,  to  keep  the  elements 
well  stirred,  by  a  process  of  mixing,  it  is  probable  that  transmu- 
tations going  on  in  certain  places  might  develop  at  length  great 
inequalities  in  the  distribution  of  the  elements,  and  the  universe 
would  not  present  the  aspect  of  essential  uniformity  so  clearly 
disclosed  by  observation.  These  results  reveal  to  us  some  of  the 
greatest  laws  of  Nature,  and  give  us  the  true  cause  for  the  wonder- 
ful order  found  to  pervade  the  starry  heavens, 

When  we  consider  the  hazy,  dust-like  aspect  of  the  nebulae 
it  is  strange  that  we  should  not  earlier  have  read  the  riddle  of  these 
remarkable  objects  as  produced  by  the  gathering  together  of  dis- 
persed dust;  for  the  existence  of  these  cosmical  clouds  in  the  uni- 
verse is  as  clear  an  indication  that  matter  is  dispersed  from  the 
stars  by  the  action  of  repulsive  forces  as  the  aqueous  clouds  in 
our  atmosphere  are  of  the  renewal  of  terrestrial  evaporation.  Any 
philosophic  observer  studying  the  nebulae  through  the  telescope 
ought  to  have  been  able  to  recognize  that  these  hazy  cloud-like 


188         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

masses  are  essentially  the  evaporation-products  of  the  stars,  and 
that  they  must  be  incessantly  renewed  by  the  repulsive  forces  at 
work  from  these  centers  of  condensation  and  radiation. 

But  false  ideas  of  Cosmogony  were  everywhere  prevalent, 
and  instead  of  looking  upon  the  nebulae  as  renewed  by  the  ex- 
pulsion of  dust  from  the  stars,  the  current  view  was  that  the 
nebulae  represented  world  stuff  not  yet  used  up  since  the  creation. 
Now  in  the  arguments  of  the  great  Herschel,  before  cited,  he 
shows  that  some  of  the  sidereal  systems  have  been  millions  of  ages 
in  forming,  and  as  others  have  been  of  very  different  duration,  it 
is  possible  to  prove  mathematically  that  the  formation  of  all  parts 
of  the  universe  did  not  begin  at  any  one  epoch,  however  remote, 
but  is  a  process  of  constant  renewal,  under  the  cyclic  process  here 
described,  the  condensation  of  the  nebulae  forming  stars  and  plane- 
tary systems  and  the  expulsion  of  dust  from  the  stars  forming  the 
nebulae. 

The  philosophical  difficulty  now  overcome  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  repulsive  forces  for  scattering  the  dust  from  the  stars  and 
thus  producing  nebulae,  and  finally  setting  the  bodies,  into  which 
the  nebulae  condense,  in  orbital  motion,  as  if  by  the  action  of  pro- 
jectile forces,  is  one  which  has  been  recognized  since  the  time  of 
Anaxagoras  (500-427  B.C.)  He  taught  that  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  had  been  torn  away  from  the  (supposed)  common  center  of 
the  earth  by  the  violence  of  the  cosmic  revolution,  just  as  Kant 
and  Laplace  long  afterwards  supposed  the  planets  to  have  been 
thrown  off  by  the  rotation  of  the  solar  nebula.  Anaxagoras' 
difficulty  of  accounting  for  the  tangential  or  projectile  forces  which 
set  the  heavenly  bodies  in  motion  is  stated  in  the  notable  work  on 
Greek  Thinkers,  by  Professor  Theodore  Gomperz  of  the  University 
of  Vienna  as  follows: 

"There  was  only  a  single  point  in  his  theory  of  the  formation 
of  the  firmament  and  the  universe  in  which  he  deserted  his  me- 
chanical and  physical  principles  to  assume  an  outside  intervention. 
That  first  shock  which  set  in  motion  the  process  of  the  universe 
that  had  hitherto  been  in  repose  reminds  us  in  a  most  striking 


Plate  E 


SPIRAL  NEBULAE  PHOTOGRAPHED  AT  LICK  OBSERVATORY: 


M  51,  GANUM  VENATICORUM; 
H.  IV  13,  GYGNI; 


M  101,  URSAE  MAJORIS; 
H.  IV  76,  CEPHEI; 


H.  153,  PEGASI;  H.  I  55,  PEGASI. 

(From  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910). 

This  plate  shows  impressively  that  the  attendant  bodies  are  not  thrown  off,  as  was  long 
imagined,  but  necessarily  added  on  from  without,  because  in  several  cases  there  are  no  central 
bodies  at  all,  or  scarcely  any;  but  the  matter  is  plainly  gathering  in  from  without,  and  working 
down  towards  the  center. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  189 

fashion  of  the  first  impulse  which  the  Deity  is  supposed  by  some 
modern  astronomers  to  have  given  to  the  stars.  Or  rather  it  would 
be  more  correct  to  say  that  both  ideas  are  practically  identical. 
They  were  intended  to  fill  up  the  same  lacuna  in  our  knowledge: 
they  spring  from  the  same  desire  to  introduce  in  the  mechanism 
of  heaven  a  second  force  of  unknown  origin  to  take  its  place  by  the 
side  of  gravity."  (Greek  Thinkers,  p.  217,  translated  by  Magnus, 
1901). 

The  explanation  of  projectile  forces  (such  as  those  which  set 
the  planets  revolving)  now  adopted,  rests  on  the  original  dispersion 
of  dust  by  the  stars,  and  its  inevitable  collection  into  a  nebula  of 
unsymmetrical  figure,  which  gradually  settles  and  coils  up,  thus 
producing  a  whirling  vortex  about  the  center  of  the  nebula,  which 
becomes  the  sun,  while  the  surviving  planets  circulating  about  it 
have  their  orbits  reduced  in  size  and  rounded  up  into  almost  per- 
fect circles  by  the  action  of  the  resisting  medium.  This  is  a  vast 
improvement  in  our  theories  of  the  mechanics  of  the  heavens,  and 
as  it  follows  directly  from  well  established  laws  of  motion,  the 
traditional  difficulty  in  the  mechanical  theory  of  the  universe  com- 
pletely disappears,  and  we  see  that  the  revolutions  of  the  stars  is 
a  necessary  consequence  and  a  proof  of  the  interaction  of  attractive 
and  repulsive  forces  in  nature. 


XVI.    SPIRAL,  ANNULAR,  ELLIPTICAL,  PLANETARY  AND 
IRREGULAR  NEBULA. 

As  nebulae  arise  from  the  collection  together  of  particles  of 
dust  expelled  from  the  stars,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  clouds 
thus  developed  will  seldom  be  of  perfectly  regular  figure,  but  will 
often  consist  of  two  or  more  streams  settling  down  and  coiling  up 
under  the  effects  of  their  mutual  gravitation.  The  settling  of  a 
stream  of  unsymmetrical  figure  towards  its  center  of  gravity  thus 
produces  a  spiral  nebula.  In  rare  cases  the  streams  may  coil 
about  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  an  annular  or  ring  nebula  like 
that  in  Lyra.  Ring  nebulae  are  therefore  special  cases  of  the  more 


190         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

general  type  of  spiral  nebulas.  If  the  whirlpool  is  of  somewhat 
even  density,  and  viewed  obliquely,  it  appears  to  be  an  elliptical 
nebula.  When  the  elements  come  together  somewhat  symmetri- 
cally from  all  directions,  and  the  density  is  somewhat  uniform,  we 
have  a  planetary  nebula  —  a  type  which  seems  to  be  quite  numer- 
ous. Most  of  the  nebulae,  however,  are  of  irregular  figure,  as 
ought  naturally  to  happen  from  the  way  they  are  formed.  In 
time  they  tend  to  settle  down  and  assume  more  symmetrical  form, 
but  the  process  is  excessively  slow,  owing  to  the  feebleness  of 
the  attractive  forces,  and  the  rarity  of  the  mass  of  cosmical 
dust,  which  usually  allows  the  light  of  stars  to  pass  through 
it,  even  when  thousands  of  times  the  diameter  of  the  solar 
system. 

For  a  long  time  after  the  age  of  Herschel  and  Laplace  it  was 
usually  assumed  that  the  nebulae  are  figures  of  equilibrium  main- 
tained by  high  temperature  and  hydrostatic  pressure,  but  of  late 
years  these  views  have  been  quite  abandoned.  The  nebula  are 
much  too  rare  for  the  exertion  of  any  hydrostatic  pressure.  This 
is  proved  from  actual  calculation  in  the  solar  system,  by  the  fact 
that  if  the  sun  be  expanded  to  Neptune's  orbit,  as  held  in  the 
abandoned  theory  of  Laplace,  the  density  of  the  resulting  nebula 
is  two  hundred  and  sixty  million  times  less  than  that  of  atmos- 
pheric air  at  sea  level,  or  thousands  of  times  less  than  that  of  the 
most  perfect  vacuum  attainable. 

A  planetary  nebula  is  therefore  analogous  to  the  infinite  sys- 
tem of  comets  revolving  in  all  directions  about  the  sun,  except  that 
the  comets  are  dense  enough  to  render  the  whole  nebula  faintly 
visible,  which  probably  is  not  true  of  our  system  of  comets  as  seen 
from  the  other  fixed  stars.  The  vast  extent  and  incredible  rarity 
of  our  system  of  comets  and  meteoric  trains  make  them  the 
best  known  illustrations  of  what  the  average  nebula  really  is. 

Some  nebulae  contain  certain  self  luminous  gases,  probably 
shining  at  very  low  temperature  by  luminescence  or  electric  excita- 
tion, but  most  of  the  elements  are  non-luminous  and  give  no 
spectral  indications  of  their  presence. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  191 

XVII.    THE  PRINCIPAL  CAUSE   OF  VARIABLE  STARS  TO  BE 
SOUGHT  IN  THE  ACTION  OF  A  RESISTING  MEDIUM. 

It  is  shown  in  my  Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Stellar 
Systems,  Vol.  II,  1910,  that,  although  quite  unseen,  planetary 
systems  really  exist  about  the  fixed  stars  which  appear  to  be  single 
under  the  most  refined  observations  of  our  greatest  telescopes. 
Our  instruments  reveal  to  us  chiefly  the  bright  companions  at  some 
distance  (visual  double  stars),  or  massive  companions  revolving 
rapidly  and  in  such  close  proximity  as  to  become  visible  only  by 
the  periodic  shift  of  the  spectral  lines  (spectroscopic  binary  stars). 
In  both  classes  of  these  objects  the  masses  must  be  considerable, 
while  the  planets  attending  the  fixed  stars  revolve  quite  unseen 
and  forever  beyond  the  reach  of  our  most  powerful  instruments. 

We  know  that  planets  attend  the  fixed  stars  for  two  reasons: 
(1)  They  attend  our  sun,  which  is  definitely  known  to  have  devel- 
oped from  a  nebula.  (2)  The  mode  of  formation  which  was  opera- 
tive when  the  planets  began  as  small  nuclei  in  the  distance  and 
neared  the  center  of  the  system  under  the  attraction  of  gravitation 
will  necessarily  have  operated  in  the  same  way  about  the  other 
stars,  which  arose  from  nebulae  under  the  very  same  laws.  There- 
fore the  fixed  stars  generally  have  systems  of  planets,  asteroids, 
satellites,  and  comets;  and  the  double  stars  are  simply  those 
systems  in  which  the  smaller  bodies  have  been  so  united  as  to  pro- 
duce large  companions. 

Now  as  all  the  stars  have  companions,  and  the  resisting 
medium  exists  everywhere,  though  with  varying  density,  it  follows 
that  those  companions  which  plunge  through  considerable  resist- 
ance at  perihelion  will  experience  a  variation  in  brightness.  The 
blazing  up  of  the  light  will  be  comparatively  rapid,  the  fall  in  bright- 
ness more  gradual,  depending  on  the  slower  process  of  cooling. 
These  are  the  variable  stars,  of  which  more  than  a  thousand  are 
known. 

Some  clusters  are  quite  filled  with  variable  stars,  and  it  is 
observed  that  their  periods  are  very  constant.  This  shows  that 


192         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

these  clusters  are  still  supplied  with  ample  nebulosity,  and  that 
variation  of  such  great  regularity  can  depend  on  nothing  but  or- 
bital motion  for  its  regulating  cause.  Where  the  variation  is  irregu- 
lar, one  should  suspect  the  presence  of  several  disturbing  bodies 
the  compound  effects  of  which  do  not  give  regular  periodicity.  In 
other  cases  there  are  phenomena  of  eclipses  to  be  dwelt  with,  as  in 
the  Algol  and  Beta  Lyrse  variables,  but  we  need  not  dwell  on  these 
details. 

The  important  thing  for  us  to  observe  is  that  the  great  cause 
which  has  rounded  up  the  orbits  of  our  planets,  enabled  the  planets 
to  capture  their  satellites,  and  given  rise  to  the  lunar  craters,  by 
the  destruction  of  millions  of  small  bodies,  is  operative  throughout 
the  universe;  and  it  is  therefore  no  wonder  that  many  of  the  stars 
are  variable. 

XVIII.     NEW  STARS  DUE   TO  COLLISIONS  WITH   ATTENDANT 

BODIES. 

As  all  the  fixed  stars  are  attended  by  systems  of  planets  and 
comets,  it  will  inevitably  happen  that  collisions  of  disastrous 
character  between  some  of  these  bodies  and  their  central  suns  will 
occasionally  occur.*  My  investigation  of  this  question  proves 
that  the  Novae  follow  the  Milky  Way  in  just  the  proportion  that 
should  occur  if  the  outbursts  depend  simply  on  the  thickness  of 
the  stars  on  the  back  ground  of  the  sky,  so  that  wherever  the  stars 
are  numerous  there  the  Novae  will  appear. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  by  some  that  the  stars  actually 
come  into  collision  with  one  another;  but  it  is  now  realized  that 
such  disasters  are  too  rare  to  become  noticeable,  whereas  collisions 
with  attendant  planets  or  comets  within  the  system  must  be  infi- 
nitely more  frequent.  Above  all,  as  the  Novae  are  of  short  dura- 
tion, this  fact  points  to  conflagrations  such  as  might  follow  from 

*  In  this  way  probably  arise  the  so-called  stellar  nebula*,  which  are  correctly 
distinguished  from  the  planetary  nebute.  The  former  follow  the  Milky  Way  like 
the  Novx,  and  undoubtedly  these  two  classes  of  objects  are  connected,  though 
this  apparently  has  not  been  suspected  heretofore. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  193 

the  collision  of  a  small  mass,  but  not  of  one  sun  with  another. 
Accordingly  it  has  come  to  be  accepted  that  the  new  stars  are  due 
to  collisions  with  minor  masses  of  the  type  of  planets  or  very  large 
comets. 

The  theory  that  a  comet  might  fall  into  a  star  which  had 
wasted  in  splendor  was  held  by  Newton,  and  thus  our  modern 
view  is  merely  an  extension  of  that  put  forth  by  the  immortal 
author  of  the  Principle  in  1687. 


XIX.     CONNECTON   ESTABLISHED  BETWEEN  ALL  CLASSES  OF 

HEAVENLY  BODIES. 

i 

The  most  significant  result  of  the  New  Science  of  Cosmogony 
as  now  developed  is  that  these  laws  unite  all  the  different  classes 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  into  one  continuous  and  unbroken  whole. 
Every  star  is  a  sun,  attended  by  an  infinite  system  of  comets,  and 
by  companions,  whether  the  system  has  the  form  of  a  double  star 
or  the  more  general  type  of  a  planetary  system  made  up  of  nu- 
merous small  bodies.  Whenever  a  system  has  a  dominant  body 
like  Jupiter,  it  has  also  a  system  of  asteroids  gathered  within  its 
orbit,  and  a  group  of  short  period  comets,  such  as  our  own  Jupiter 
has  captured.  The  comets  are  destroyed,  and  the  dust  of  their 
disintegration  serves  to  build  up  the  masses  of  the  planets. 

In  the  transition  of  the  asteroids  over  Jupiter's  orbit,  some 
are  captured  and  become  satellites,  which  usually  have  a  direct 
revolution,  but  a  lesser  number  may  move  retrograde,  as  actually 
observed  in  the  solar  system.  The  collisions  of  captured  particles 
with  the  planets  give  these  globes  a  direct  rotation  on  their  axes, 
and  establish  obliquities  like  those  observed  in  the  planets  revolv- 
ing about  our  sun.  The  meteors,  comets,  asteroids,  satellites  and 
smaller  planets  are  consumed  in  building  up  the  larger  bodies  of 
the  system.  If  a  large  companion  revolves  in  an  eccentric  orbit, 
most  of  the  planetary  bodies  may  be  swallowed  up  in  one  of  the 
two  large  masses  and  thus  lead  to  the  development  of  a  double 
star.  Should  the  stars  be  far  apart  there  may  arise  a  closer  com- 


194         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

panion  giving  a  triple  or  quadruple  star,  or  one  of  the  components 
of  a  double  star  may  become  a  spectroscopic  binary.  When  a 
nebula  of  vast  extent  is  formed  and  develops  by  condensation  at 
many  centers  we  have  a  cluster,  with  companions  attending  the 
individual  stars,  and  by  revolving  in  the  nebular  resisting  medium 
giving  us  cluster  variables,  often  with  wonderful  regularity  of 
period. 

Collisions  of  large  comets  or  planets  with  suns  which  have 
wasted  in  splendor  supply  new  or  temporary  stars,  which  blaze 
forth  wherever  the  stars  are  crowded  on  the  background  of  the 
sky,  and  therefore  principally  along  the  course  of  the  Milky  Way. 
The  dust  expelled  from  the  stars  to  form  nebulae  may  take  any  of 
the  observed  forms,  and  thus  we  have  spiral,  annular,  elliptical, 
planetary  and  irregular  nebulae.  Astronomers  now  recognize  the 
following  classes  of  cosmical  bodies:  1,  single  stars:  2,  double 
stars,  including  both  visual  and  spectroscopic  binaries;  3,  multi- 
ple stars;  4,  clusters  of  stars;  5,  star-clouds  in  the  Milky  Way; 
6,  the  Milky  Way  itself,  as  a  clustering  stream  of  smaller  systems 
traversing  the  circuit  of  the  heavens  and  here  and  there  culminat- 
ing in  a  perfect  blaze  from  the  intensity  of  the  accumulated  star- 
light; 7,  variable  stars;  8,  temporary  stars;  9,  planetary  sys- 
tems; 10,  systems  of  satellites;  11,  systems  of  asteroids;  12, 
systems  of  comets;  13,  spiral  nebulae;  14,  annular  nebulae;  15, 
elliptical  nebulae;  16,  planetary  nebulae;  17,  irregular  nebulae; 
18,  diffuse  nebulosity,  often  covering  whole  constellations;  19, 
canopies  of  nebulae  accumulating  with  maximum  density  near  the 
poles  of  the  Milky  Way;  20,  two  or  more  streams  among  the  stars, 
indicating  that  the  observed  order  of  the  universe  is  slowly  chang- 
ing with  the  flight  of  ages. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  Science  of  Cosmogony  which  is  founded 
on  a  true  basis  should  connect  these  different  classes  of  bodies  one 
with  another,  and  thus  establish  an  unbroken  continuity  in  the 
observed  order  of  Nature. 

In  the  new  edition  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  under  the 
article  Stars,  it  is  pointed  out  by  Mr.  A.  S.  Eddington  of  the  Royal 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  195 

Observatory,  Greenwich,  that  a  fundamental  contradiction  arises 
in  our  conceptions  of  cosmical  evolution  when,  on  the  one  hand, 
we  try  to  pass  from  systems  of  binary  stars  and  planets,  supposed 
to  be  thrown  off  from  the  central  nebula  by  the  fluid  fission  pro- 
cess of  Poincare  and  Darwin  to  the  star  clusters,  on  the  other, 
which  are  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  aggregation  of  matter  towards 
centers,  as  imagined  by  Herschel.  If  Mr.  Eddington  had  read 
my  papers  of  1909  carefully,  and  above  all  the  second  volume  of 
my  Researches,  1910,  he  would  have  seen  that  this  long-standing 
contradiction  is  now  permanently  removed,  because  I  have  proved 
that  the  uniform  Law  of  Nature  is  one  of  aggregation  of  matter 
towards  the  large  centers  of  attraction,  while  the  only  throwing 
off  that  ever  takes  place  is  that  of  small  particles  expelled  by  the 
action  of  repulsive  forces.  Mr.  Eddington' s  article  doubtless 
was  prepared  several  years  ago,  but  the  failure  to  bring  it  up  to 
date  in  this  and  many  other  cases  shows  that  the  Britannica  is 
antiquated  before  it  leaves  the  press,  and  it  is  not  remarkable 
therefore  that  it  has  so  largely  disappointed  the  scientific  world. 

From  the  foregoing  theory  it  thus  appears  that  we  have  a 
simple  and  consistent  explanation  of  all  classes  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  in  their  mutual  relationship  and  distribution  in  space.  The 
harmony  and  order  thus  introduced  into  apparently  confused  and 
extremely  varied  phenomena  is  the  best  proof  that  the  laws  now 
recognized  are  the  true  Laws  of  Nature. 


XX.     PHILOSOPHICAL  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  PLATO'S    CELEBRATE 
SAYING  THAT  THE  DEITY  ALWAYS  GEOMETRIZES. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  these  laws,  as  disclosed  by  the 
New  Science  of  Cosmogony,  appeals  especially  to  the  geometer. 
And  as  it  has  left  a  profound  impress  upon  the  geometry  of  the 
heavens,  we  may  conclude  these  remarks  by  a  brief  explanation 
of  it.  We  have  seen  that  the  nebulae  are  formed  by  the  gathering 
together  of  fine  dust  expelled  from  the  stars,  and  that  it  eventu- 
ally condenses  into  larger  bodies.  This  unsymmetrical  figure  of 


196         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

a  nebula  often  causes  it  to  settle,  under  its  own  gravitation,  and 
develop  into  a  spiral  resembling  the  spiral  of  Archimedes.  The 
sun  of  the  system  develops  at  the  center,  while  planets  are  formed 
in  the  distance  and  made  to  approach  the  sun  in  orbits  becoming 
smaller  and  smaller  and  rounder  and  rounder,  owing  to  the  secular 
effects  of  the  nebular  resisting  medium.  And  the  final  outcome 
is  a  planetary  system  of  the  beauty  and  order  found  about  our 
sun,  the  planets  being  attended  by  captured  satellites  and  endowed 
with  axial  rotation  and  small  obliquity,  often  surrounded  by  atmos- 
pheres and  oceans,  with  all  the  conditions  favorable  for  habitability. 

This  development  represents  one  of  the  greatest  and  most 
general  laws  of  nature.  Now  if  drawing  ellipses  and  slowly  trans- 
forming them  into  circles  for  the  orbits  of  planets,  and  thus  estab- 
lishing orderly  systems  out  of  the  chaos  of  a  spiral  nebula  may 
be  considered  geometrizing,  then  Plato  certainly  was  right  when 
he  declared  that  the  Deity  always  geometrizes — o  0eos  dct  yew/AeVpct. 

A  sublimer  truth  than  this  probably  never  will  be  disclosed 
to  mortals.  When  we  behold  the  starry  heavens  on  a  cloudless 
night  we  may  well  recall  the  geometrizing  of  the  Deity  which  is 
always  going!  on  for  establishing  the  beauty  and  order  of  the 
Cosmos. 

U.S.  Naval  Observatory, 

Mare  Island,  California, 

August  7,  1911. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

1911. 

DETERMINATION  OF  THE  DEPTH  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY.* 

By  T.  J.  J.  SEE. 
(Read  January  5,  1912.) 

INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 


problem  of  determining  the  depth  of  the  Milky  Way,  as 
accurately  as  possible,  is  one  which  has  now  engaged  my 
attention  for  over  twenty  years,  and  I  will  therefore  take 
this  occasion  to  bring  together  the  results  at  which  I  have  arrived, 
partly  because  they  are  of  high  general  interest,  and  partly  because 
the  progress  thus  made  will  prove  instructive  as  to  the  methods 
which  must  be  adopted  for  the  measurement  of  the  distances  of 
the  most  remote  objects  of  the  sidereal  universe.  Here  we  have 
to  deal  with  distances  so  immense  that  the  method  of  annual 
parallaxes,  commonly  used  for  the  stars  comparatively  near  the 
sun,  utterly  fails;  and  recourse  must  be  had  to  other  methods 
which  will  serve  for  the  greatest  distances  to  which  our  modern 
giant  telescopes  can  penetrate. 

Alpha  Centauri,  the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars,  was  also  the 
first  to  be  sucessfully  measured  for  parallax,  by  Thomas  Hender- 
son, of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  1831;  but  the  work  was  not 
reduced  till  January,  1839,  and  meanwhile  Bessel  had  measured 
the  parallax  of  61  Cygni  in  1838  and  promptly  published  the  result 
of  his  triumph.  Of  late  years  astronomers  have  given  greatly 
increased  attention  to  the  question  of  the  distances  of  the  stars 
and  systematic  campaigns  of  the  most  laborious  kind  have  been 
carried  on  by  Gill;  Elkin  and  Chase,  of  Yale;  Kapteyn,  of  Gronin- 
gen;  and  Schlesinger,  at  the  Yerkes  Observatory,  Chicago.  Some 

*Reprinted  from  Proceedings  American  Philosophical  Society,  Vol.  li.,  1912. 


198        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

three  hundred  and  fifty  stars  have  now  been  studied  by  the  stand- 
ard method  of  parallaxes,  and  for  most  of  these  objects,  perhaps 
about  two  hundred  in  number,  fairly  satisfactory  data  have  been 
deduced;  but  the  method  can  be  extended  only  to  stars  within 
less  than  one  hundred  light-years  of  our  sun,  and  is  therefore  very 
limited  in  its  applicability,  owing  to  the  small  diameter  of  the  earth's 
orbit,  and  the  insensible  effects  of  the  annual  displacements  result- 
ing from  the  orbital  motion  of  our  planet.  As  nature  herself  has 
fixed  the  limits  of  this  method,  astronomers  have  naturally  cast 
about  for  other  methods  of  greater  generality  and  have  finally 
developed  processes  of  surprising  power,  of  which  an  account  will 
be  given  in  the  present  paper. 

§1.    OUTLINE  OF  THE  METHODS  ADOPTED. 

Among  previous  investigators  who  have  occupied  themselves 
with  the  difficult  problem  of  the  profundity  of  the  Milky  Way  the 
first  place  will  be  universally  assigned  to  the  incomparable  Sir 
William  Herschel,  who  extended  his  researches  over  many  years, 
and  reached  results  which  were  for  a  time  accepted,  but  have  been 
rejected  for  three  quarters  of  a  century,  and  yet  are  now  proved  to 
be  essentially  correct.  It  is  very  remarkable  and  exceedingly 
unfortunate  that  Herschel' s  conclusions  have  been  generally  re- 
jected by  his  son,  Sir  John  Herschel,  and  other  astronomers  dur- 
ing the  past  seventy-five  years.  But  before  discussing  the  circum- 
stances which  led  to  this  outcome  I  shall  recall  the  modern  attempts 
at  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  determining  distances  in  the 
Milky  Way. 

After  the  spectroscope  came  into  use,  and  Huggins  had  applied 
Doeppler's  principle  to  the  motion  in  the  line  of  sight  (1868)  it 
was  pointed  out  by  Fox  Talbot  in  1871  (Brit.  Assoc.  Report,  1871, 
p.  34,  Pt.  II.)  that  the  possibility  existed  of  determining  the  abso- 
lute dimensions  of  the  orbit  of  a  pair  of  binary  stars  which  had  a 
known  angular  dimension  in  the  sky,  and  thus  parallaxes  might 
be  found  of  systems  very  remote  from  the  earth.  In  1890,  while 
a  post-graduate  student  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  I  developed 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.   J.   SEE  199 

this  method  still  further,  and  showed  how  it  could  be  used  also  to 
test  the  accuracy  of  the  law  of  universal  gravitation  in  the  stellar 
systems.  The  spectroscopic  method  then  outlined  was  brought 
to  more  general  form  in  1895,  and  it  at  once  occurred  to  me  to  point 
out  its  use  for  measuring  the  distance  of  clusters  in  the  Milky  Way 
(A.N.  3,323),  as  more  certain  than  Herschel's  method  of  star 
gauges. 

Our  age  is  one  of  rapid  improvement  in  all  scientific  processes 
and  during  the  past  sixteen  years  naturally  much  progress  has 
been  made  in  double-star  astronomy,  as  well  as  in  our  knowledge 
of  nebulae  and  clusters.  On  looking  more  closely  into  the  spectro- 
scopic method,  which  in  1895  had  been  shown  to  be  applicable  to 
objects  1,000  light-years  from  the  sun,  and  might  thus  include  all 
suitable  double-stars  within  this  sphere,  I  became  convinced  that 
while  it  is  a  great  theoretical  advance  over  the  old  method  of  par- 
allaxes, it  still  is  quite  inadequate  for  finding  the  distances  of  the 
most  remote  objects  in  the  sidereal  universe.  Accordingly  in  1909 
I  returned  to  the  improvement  of  Herschel's  method  as  the  most 
promising,  for  the  determination  of  the  distances  of  the  most  remote 
objects.  Here  are  the  grounds  for  this  decision: 

1.  It  was  noticed,  as  remarked  by  Burnham,  that  revolving 
double  stars  are  rare,  if  not  unknown,  in  clusters,  and  among  the 
star-clouds  of  the  Milky  Way  —  not  because  such  systems  are  not 
present  in  these  masses  of  stars,  but  because  they  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated, owing  to  the  great  distances  at  which  these  masses  of  stars 
are  removed  from  us. 

2.  When  double  stars  cannot  be  clearly  separated  in  the  tele- 
scope they  cannot  be  used  for  parallax  by  the  spectroscopic  method; 
and  thus  the  spectroscopic  method,  while  having  a  wider  range  of 
application  than  the  method  of  parallaxes,  in  something  like  the 
ratio  of  the  size  of  the  double  star  orbit  to  that  of  the  orbit  of  the 
earth,  is  yet  applicable  only  to  stars  within  about  1,000  light-years 
of  our  sun. 

3.  It  will  be  shown  below  that  the  most  remote  stars  are 
separated  from  us  by  a  distance  of  at  least  1,000,000  light-years, 


200         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

and  as  this  space  is  a  thousand  times  that  to  which  the  spectro- 
scopic  method  may  be  applied,  it  follows  that  there  is  no  way  of 
fathoming  these  immense  distances  except  by  the  improvement  of 
the  method  of  Herschel. 

And  just  as  in  my  "  Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Stellar 
Systems,"  Vol.  II,  1910,  p.  638,  I  had  been  able  to  adduce  sub- 
stantial grounds  for  returning  to  the  vast  distances  calculated  by 
Herschel,  so  also  during  the  past  year  I  have  been  able  to  add  to 
the  proof  there  brought  forward,  and  will  proceed  to  develop  it 
in  the  present  paper. 

§2.    HERSCHEL'S  METHOD  DEPENDING  ON  THE  SPACE  PENETRA- 
TING POWER  OF  TELESCOPES. 

In  his  celebrated  star  gauges  Herschel  employed  a  twenty- 
foot  reflector  of  eighteen  inches  aperture,  and  calculated  the  space- 
penetrating  power  of  such  an  instrument  from  the  ratio  of  the 
aperture  of  the  telescope  to  that  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  The  com- 
parative distance  to  which  a  star  would  have  to  be  removed  in  order 
that  it  may  appear  of  the  same  brightness  through  the  telescope 
as  it  did  before  to  the  naked  eye  may  thus  be  calculated.  Herschel 
found  the  power  of  this  twenty- foot  reflector  to  be  seventy-five; 
so  that  a  star  of  sixth  magnitude  removed  to  seventy-five  times  its 
present  distance  would  therefore  still  be  visible,  as  a  star,  in  the 
instrument. 

Admitting  such  a  sixth  magnitude  star  to  give  only  a  hundredth 
part  of  the  light  of  the  standard  first  magnitude  star,  it  will  follow 
that  the  standard  star  could  be  seen  as  a  sixth  magnitude  star  at 
ten  times  its  present  distance;  and  if  we  then  multiply  by  the 
space  penetrating  power,  we  get  750  as  the  distance  to  which  the 
standard  star  could  be  removed  and  still  excite  in  the  eye,  when 
viewed  through  the  telescope,  the  same  impression  as  a  star  of  sixth 
magnitude  does  to  the  naked  eye.  Thus  if  Alpha  Centauri  be 
distant  4.5  light-years,  it  would  be  visible  in  Herschel's  telescope 
at  a  distance  of  3,375  light-years.  This  is  about  the  distance 
ascribed  to  the  remoter  stars  of  the  Milky  Way  by  Newcomb  and 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  201 

many  other  modern  writers;  but  of  course  it  is  much  too  small, 
for  the  following  reasons: 

(a)  Newcomb  and  other  astronomers  cite  the  possibility  of 
some  of  the  stars  being  as  much  as  1,000,000  times  brighter  than 
the  average  solar  star,  and  in  that  case  the  star  might  be  seen  at 
^1,000,000=1,000  times  that  distance,  or  3,375,000  light-years, 
with  an  instrument  having  a  space  penetrating  power  no  greater 
than  that  employed  by  Herschel,  provided  that  no  light  is  extin- 
guished in  its  passage  through  space. 

(b)  If  the  telescope  be  more  powerful  than  Herschel's  20- 
foot  reflector,  the  light  gathered  will  be  increased  in  the  ratio  of 
x2/(18)2,  where  x  =  diameter  of  mirror;  and  for  the  60-inch  re- 
flector at  Pasadena,  x  =  60,  over  nine  times  as  much  light  could 
be  gathered,  or  stars  seen  over  three  times  as  far  away.    Thus  if 
the  stars  have  only  about  10,000  times  the  luminosity  of  the  sun, 
they  could  still  be  seen  with  the  Pasadena  reflector  at  a  distance 
of  over  a  million  light-years.    For  3,375  l.-y .  X  3  X 100  =  1,012,500 
light-years. 

(c)  The  sensitiveness  and  accumulative  effects  of  the  photo- 
graphic plate,  will  enable  us  to  extend  our  sounding  line  still 
further  out  into  space  by  some  three  magnitudes,  or  four  times  the 
distance;  and  thus  with  a  modern  60-inch  reflector  we  could  photo- 
graph stars  at  a  distance  of  about  four  million  light-years,  if  they 
have  10,000  times  the  standard  solar  luminosity,  and  no  light  is 
lost  in  space.    How  much  light  is  really  lost  in  space  will  be  con- 
sidered later,  but  it  may  be  stated  here  that  it  probably  is  decidedly 
less  than  was  concluded  by  Struve. 

§3.    INDEPENDENT   CALCULATION   OF  THE  DISTANCE  OF  THE 
REMOTEST  STARS  OF  THE  HELIUM  TYPE. 

From  the  data  given  in  Lick  Observatory  Bulletin  No.  195, 
we  find  that  225  helium  stars  employed  by  Campbell  in  his 
line  of  sight  work  have  an  average  visual  magnitude  of  4.14.  Of 
the  four  variables  given  in  this  Bulletin,  we  have  used  the 
maximum  brightness  in  three  cases,  because  they  are  of  the 
algol  type.  In  the  case  of  u  Herculis,  we  have  used  the  mean 


202         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

magnitude,  because  the  type  of  variable  does  not  appear  to  be  as 
yet  well  established. 

Here  then  we  have  225  helium  stars  at  an  average  distance  of 
about  540  light-years.  For  in  Lick  Observatory  Bulletin  No.  195, 
p.  121,  Campbell  finds  the  180  class  B,  or  helium,  stars  to  have  an 
average  distance  of  543  light-years,  while  in  Publications  of  the 
Astronomical  Society  of  the  Pacific  for  June- August,  1911,  p.  159, 
Professor  Curtis  gives  534  light-years  as  the  average  distance  of 
312  helium  stars.  The  former  distance  for  180  stars  being  greater 
than  the  latter  distance  for  312  stars,  we  may  take  540  light-years 
as  the  distance  of  the  225  helium  stars  here  under  discussion,  the 
average  magnitude  of  which  is  4.14. 

If  the  average  magnitude  were  decreased  to  21.14,  by  removal 
to  2,512  times  their  present  distance,  which  would  reduce  the  aver- 
age brightness  by  17  magnitudes,  the  distance  of  the  stars  would 
be  multiplied  by  2,512,  and  become  1,356,480  light-years.  This 
is  for  the  helium  stars  as  they  are,  without  any  hypothesis  as  to 
brightness,  or  as  to  the  extinction  of  light  in  space,  which  will  be 
considered  later. 

The  question  will  naturally  be  asked  whether  helium  stars 
really  exist  at  these  great  distances.  We  may  unhesitatingly 
affirm  that  they  do,  because  of  the  well-known  whiteness  of  the 
small  stars  of  the  Milky  Way.  It  is  true  that  Pickering  has  in- 
vestigated the  distribution  of  the  helium  stars  in  the  Harvard 
Annals,  Vol.  56,  No.  II.,  and  Campbell  quotes  these  data  in  Lick 
Observatory  Bulletin  No.  195  as  showing  that  the  helium  stars  are 
all  bright  objects.  Pickering  believed  his  tabulations  to  indicate 
"that  of  the  bright  stars,  one  out  of  four  belongs  to  this  class  (B), 
while  of  the  stars  of  the  sixth  magnitude  there  is  only  one  out  of 
twenty;  and  that  few  if  any  would  be  found  fainter  than  the 
seventh  or  eighth  magnitude."  The  implication  here  is  that  no 
helium  stars  exist  at  very  great  distances  corrresponding  to  small 
magnitudes;  but  of  course  such  a  view  is  untenable. 

It  probably  is  true  that  the  group  of  helium  stars  at  a  distance 
of  some  540  light-years  from  our  sun,  and  thus  comparatively  near 
us,  does  cease  after  a  certain  faintness  and  distance  has  been 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  203 

reached;  but  is  equally  certain  that  other  clusters  or  clouds  of 
helium  stars  recur  at  greater  distances,  among  the  millions  of  small 
white  stars  constituting  the  Milky  Way.  For  as  Herschel  long  ago 
noticed  the  Galaxy  is  everywhere  observed  to  traverse  the  circuit 
of  the  heavens  in  a  clustering  stream;  and  our  view  of  it  from  the 
region  of  the  sun  is  not  essentially  different  from  the  view  that 
could  be  obtained  from  other  points  in  this  starry  stratum.  Add 
to  this  consideration  the  fact  of  the  well-known  whiteness  of  the 
small  stars  in  the  Milky  Way,  and  we  are  authorized  to  conclude 
that  an  indefinite  number  of  clusters  or  groups  of  helium  stars  will 
be  found  in  the  Milky  Way,  and  thus  such  stars  will  certainly 
exist  at  the  greatest  depths  to  which  our  giant  telescopes  can 
penetrate. 

We  must  therefore  be  on  our  guard  against  the  superficial 
view,  that  because  the  helium  stars  near  the  sun  fade  away  as  the 
sixth  magnitude  is  approached,  other  groups  of  stars  of  this  type 
do  not  occur  at  greater  distances.  The  typical  whiteness  of  the 
millions  of  small  stars  which  make  up  the  Milky  Way,  and  the 
clustering  character  of  that  magnificent  collection  of  stars,  alike 
forbid  any  such  inference. 

Herschel  had  the  correct  view  of  the  constitution  of  the 
Galaxy  a  century  ago.  Unfortunately  his  works  have  been  very 
inaccessible,  and  are  so  little  used  that  many  erroneous  conceptions 
have  been  given  currency  by  more  superficial  investigators.  It  is 
impossible  to  commend  too  highly  the  movement  now  on  foot  in 
England  to  reissue  the  collected  works  of  Sir  William  Herschel. 
In  all  that  pertains  to  the  sidereal  universe  as  a  whole  he  is  easily 
the  greatest  of  all  modern  astronomers,  and  will  always  remain 
unrivaled. 

§4.    EXPLANATION  OF  THE  METHODS  EMPLOYED  BY  CAMPBELL 

FOR  FINDING  THE  AVERAGE  DISTANCE  OF  THE  GROUP  OF 

NAKED  EYE  HELIUM  STARS. 

This  is  essentially  a  combination  of  the  line  of  sight  motion 
as  found  at  Lick  Observatory,  with  the  proper  motions  resulting 
from  observations  with  the  meridian  circle,  by  many  observers,  as 


204         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

worked  up  by  Boss  of  the  Dudley  Observatory,  Albany,  New  York. 
By  the  recent  study  of  several  thousand  of  the  brighter  stars 
included  in  his  Prelimimary  General  Catalogue,  Professor  Boss 
has  deduced  their  proper  motions  with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy. 
Campbell  found  from  180  of  these  stars  resembling  our  sun  in 
spectral  type  that  their  average  cross  proper  motion  in  the  sky, 
from  the  values  derived  by  Boss,  was  about  0.11  second  of  arc  per 
annum,  while  at  the  same  time  their  average  speed  in  the  line  of 
sight  shown  by  the  spectrograph  at  Lick  Observatory  was  8.9 
miles  per  second,  or  two  hundred  and  eighty  million  miles  a  year. 
Having  the  average  motion  in  the  line  of  sight,  in  absolute  units, 
and  the  average  cross  proper  motion  in  seconds  of  arc,  it  is  easy 
to  find  how  far  away  a  base  line  of  280  million  miles  would  have  to 
be  to  subtend  an  angle  of  0.11  of  a  second  of  arc.  It  turns  out  to 
be  ninety-two  light-years. 

In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  get  the  average  distances  of  large 
groups  of  stars.    Here  are  some  of  the  results  found  by  Campbell. 


Type 

No. 

Average  Yearly 
Cross-motion 

Average  Radial 
Velocity  in  Miles 
per  Second 

Average  Rela- 
tive Parallax 

Average  Dis- 
tance in  Light- 
years 

B-B6 
Bs-B9 
A 
F 
G 
K 
M 

312 
90 
172' 
180 
118 
346 
71 

0.0078 

0.0182 
0.0368 
0.1075 
0.0748 
0.0516 
0.0384 

3.9 
4.2 
6.5 
8.9 
9.9 
10.4 
10.6 

0.0061 
0.0129 
0.0166 
0.0354 
0.0223 
0.0146 
0.0106 

534 
253 
196 
92 
146 
223 
308 

This  table  contains  the  most  important  results  of  the  Camp- 
bell-Boss method  of  obtaining  average  distances  for  large  groups 
of  stars.  It  need  scarcely  be  remarked  that  its  significance  can 
hardly  be  overrated.  But  whilst  the  average  values  given  are  quite 
trustworthy,  the  method  is  of  course  inapplicable  to  the  individual 
stars]  and  if  their  distances  are  to  be  found,  recourse  would  have 
to  be  had  to  the  standard  method  of  parallaxes,  or  to  the  spectro- 
scopic  method  in  the  case  of  visual  binaries. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE          205 

§5.    SOME  OF  THE  DISTANCES  OF   THE  REMOTEST  STARS  AS 
HERETOFORE  CALCULATED  BY  ASTRONOMERS. 

1.  Sir  William  Herschel,  Phil.  Trans.,  1802,  p.  498,  "almost  2,000,000  light- 

years." 

2.  Sir  John  Herschel,   "Outlines,"  edition  of   1869,  p.   583,  "upwards   of 

2,000  light-years." 

3.  Guillemin,  "The  Heavens,"  trans,  by  Lockyer,  1867,  p.  433,  "upwards  of 

20,000  light-years." 

4.  Bartlett,  "Spherical  Astronomy,"  1874,  p.  149,  "upwards  of  2,437.5  light- 

years." 

5.  Newcomb,  "Popular  Astronomy,"  edition  of  1878,  p.  481,  "about  14,000 

light-years"  (for  the  Herschel  stars). 

6.  Clerke,  " System  of  the  Stars,"  1890,  p.  314,  "less  than  36,000  light-years." 

7.  Ranyard,  "  Old  and  New  Astronomy,"  1892,  p.  748, "  less  than  70,000  light- 

years." 

8.  Young,  "  General  Astronomy,"  edition  of  1904,  p.  563,  "  10,000  to  20,000 

light-years." 

9.  Newcomb,  "  The  Stars,"  1908,  p.  319,  "  at  least  3,000  light-years." 
10.    See,  "Researches,"  Vol.  II,  1910,  p.  638,  "4,500,000  light-years." 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  there  was  a  great  falling 
off  in  the  distances  following  the  epoch  of  Sir  William  Herschel; 
and  that  the  present  writer  was  the  first  to  recognize  the  fallacy  of 
the  recent  estimates  of  distance,  and  to  restore  the  large  values 
used  by  that  unrivaled  astronomer  one  hundred  and  ten  years 
ago.  Here  we  have  a  good  illustration  of  the  retrogradation  of 
opinion  in  astronomy,  under  the  cultivation  of  inferior  genius. 
Sir  John  Herschel's  preference  for  such  small  distances  over  the 
large  values  used  by  his  father  is  indeed  remarkable  and  very 
regrettable .  Evidently  the  small  value  used  by  Newcomb  is  simply 
an  echo  of  the  reduction  in  distance  made  by  Sir  John  Herschel. 
The  absurdity  of  these  small  values  —  not  over  five  times  that  of 
the  helium  stars  of  4.14  magnitude  investigated  at  Lick  Observa- 
tory —  ought  to  impress  us  with  the  small  importance  to  be  attach- 
ed to  any  opinion  merely  because  it  is  currently  accepted.  Thus 
we  have  a  clear  case  of  misleading  tradition  transmitted  from  the 
second  Herschel,  and  the  amazing  spectacle  of  the  whole  world 
using  values  about  a  thousand  times  too  small,  for  the  greater  part 
of  a  century,  in  times  which  were  supposed  to  be  very  enlightened. 
Strange  indeed  that  the  correct  work  of  the  great  Sir  William 


206         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Herschel  should  have  been  neglected  all  this  time!  Will  it  seem 
credible  to  future  ages  that  such  a  remarkable  retrogradation  of 
opinion  could  have  occurred  and  persisted  during  the  nineteenth 
and  twentieth  centuries?  If  so,  it  must  be  attributed  to  the  nar- 
rowing effects  of  extreme  specialization,  which,  with  the  advance 
of  science,  has  been  difficult  to  avoid  in  our  time,  and  yet  is  utterly 
disastrous  to  the  growth  of  true  natural  philosophy  as  the  study 
of  nature  in  the  widest  sense. 

§6.    OTHER  METHODS  FOR  CONFIRMING  THE  GREAT  DEPTH  OF 

THE  MILKY  WAY. 

(a)  The  girdle  of  helium  stars  about  our  sun,  according  to  the 
Lick  determination,  has  a  mean  distance  of  540  light-years,  or  a 
mean  diameter  of  1,080  light-years.     If  this  be  one- twentieth  of 
the  average  thickness  of  the  Milky  Way  stratum,  as  one  may  infer 
from  the  appearance  of  certain  clusters  in  the  constellation  Sagit- 
tarius, which  are  near  enough  to  be  studied  intelligently,  then  we 
have  21,600  light-years  for  the  average  thickness  of  the  Milky 
Way. 

Now  when  we  traverse  the  Milky  Way  from  Centaurus  to 
Cepheus,  over  an  arc  of  180°  in  length,  the  central  band  appears 
to  the  naked  eye  to  have  a  width  of  3°  or  4°,  as  was  long  ago  re- 
marked also  by  Herschel  and  Struve.  This  is  an  extension  along 
the  circle  of  the  Galaxy  of  about  60  times  its  thickness.  If  then 
the  thickness  be  2 1,600  light-years,  the  double  depth  of  the  stratum 
in  both  directions  becomes  about  two- thirds  of  21,600X60= 
864,000  light-years.  And  if  only  the  faint  or  distant  telescopic 
stars  be  considered,  the  width  of  their  belt  of  distribution  is  nar- 
rower, and  the  depth  would  be  found  several  times  greater  yet. 
Wherefore  it  seems  certain  that  the  profundity  of  the  Milky  Way, 
considerably  exceeds  a  million  light-years,  and  may  be  several 
times  that  depth. 

(b)  Accordingly  if  we  make  the  very  moderate  hypothesis 
that  the  width  of  3°  or  4°,  which  was  also  noticed  by  Herschel  and 
Struve,  represents  chiefly  the  nearer  portion  of  the  Galaxy;  and 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.   J.   SEE  207 

that  the  remoter  portion  has  a  width  not  exceeding  1°,  we  should 
conclude  that  the  depth  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  thick- 
ness or  apparent  angular  width  of  21,600  light-years  by  the  num- 
ber of  degrees  in  the  radius,  57.3.  This  gives  for  the  depth  1,237,- 
680  light-years,  and  this  value  might  be  considerably  increased  by 
adjustments  in  the  data  which  are  not  improbable. 

(c)  In  addition  to  these  general  arguments,  founded  on  the 
principles  of  geometry,  we  might  introduce  another  based  on  actual 
measurement.  The  Lick  helium  stars,  of  average  brightness  4.14 
mag.,  were  found  to  have  an  average  distance  of  540  light-years. 
If  they  were  brought  near  enough  to  us  to  appear  of  1st  magni- 
tude, this  distance  would  have  to  be  divided  by  4  =  \/(2.512)3, 
and  thus  we  find  for  the  first  magnitude  helium  stars  a  distance  of 
135  light-years. 

Now  in  calculating  the  plan  of  the  construction  of  the  heavens 
from  the  apparent  breadth  of  the  Milky  Way,  Herschel  arrived  at 
the  conclusion  that  the  thickness  of  the  stratum  is  about  80  times 
greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  including  the  first  magni- 
tude stars  represented  by  Sirius  (Phil.  Trans.,  1785,  p.  254).  And 
if  the  average  distance  of  these  stars  be  taken  as  135  light-years, 
the  mean  diameter  of  the  shell  in  which  they  are  included  will  be 
270  light-years.  This  would  give  exactly  21,600  light-years  for 
the  thickness  of  the  stratum  of  the  Milky  Way,  as  before. 

It  is  true  that  Herschel  classed  all  first  magnitude  stars  in  one 
group,  and  took  no  account  of  the  fact  that  the  helium  stars  are 
the  more  remote  and  the  more  brilliant;  yet  regarding  the  Galaxy 
as  a  stratum  of  stars  chiefly  of  the  helium  type,  which  certainly 
is  true  of  all  the  more  distant  portions  of  that  magnificent  col- 
lection of  stars,  we  may  consider  the  reasoning  of  this  great  astron- 
omer as  still  valid.  And  the  argument  in  regard  to  the  depth  of  the 
Milky  Way  is  thus  the  same  as  that  given  above  under  (a)  and  (b). 

§7.    THE  EFFECTS  OF  THE  EXTINCTION  OF  LIGHT  IN  SPACE. 

This  problem  has  been  treated  with  some  detail  in  the  23d 
chapter  of  my  "Researches,"  Vol.  II.,  1910,  but  we  shall  here 


208 


BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 


examine  the  subject  with  greater  care,  especially  as  to  the  most 
probable  average  value  of  the  coefficient  of  extinction.  The  light 
was  shown  by  Struve  to  be  defined  by  the  equation 


-,  (0.990651) x- 
x 


(1) 


where  x  is  the  distance  of  the  star,  in  units  of  A  =  \/  (2.512)n  and 
n  is  the  difference  in  magnitude.  At  very  great  distances  nearly 
all  the  light  is  cut  off,  and  it  therefore  becomes  a  question  of  high 
importance  to  determine  as  accurately  as  possible  the  proper  value 
for  the  coefficient  of  extinction. 

Struve's  value,  used  in  the  above  formula,  seems  to  be  too 
small,  and  I  have  therefore  calculated  a  new  table,  to  show  the 
effect  of  increasing  the  coefficient.  In  justification  of  this  course 
it  should  be  recalled  that  Sir  William  Herschel  ignored  extinction 
entirely;  but  while  this  procedure  obviously  is  defective,  it  is 
pretty  clear,  from  the  aspects  of  the  Milky  Way  as  now  made 
known  by  modern  research,  that  Struve's  coefficient  is  decidedly 
too  small.  The  following  table  shows  the  effects  of  varying  the 
coefficient,  upon  stars  17  magnitudes  fainter,  corresponding  to  a 
distance  2,512  times  larger,  where  x — 1  =  2,511. 

TABLE  FOR  VARYING  COEFFICIENT  OF  EXTINCTION. 


;i=Ceoff.  of 
Extinction. 

fr-i. 

Fractional  Part  of  Light  Transmitted,  in  Spite 
of  Extinction, 

0.990651 
0.995 

0.996 
0.997 
0.998 
0.999 

0.9995 
1.00000 

0.000,000,000,05709 
0.000,003,4072 

0.000,042,571 
0.000,52923 
0.006,5567 
0.081,091 

0.284,846 
1.000,00 

1 

17514000000    (Struve's  value) 
1 

293  490 
1 

23490 
1 

1889.5 
1 

152.51 

12332         (Sees  value) 
1 

3.5107 
1.00000        (Herschel's  value) 

UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  209 

From  the  study  of  this  table,  we  perceive  that  at  the  distance 
% =  2, 5 12,  corresponding  to  an  enfeeblement  of  17  magnitudes, 
from  mere  increase  of  distance  alone,  the  extinction  of  light  varies 
from  almost  total  loss,  with  Struve's  co-efficient,  to  no  loss  what- 
ever, on  Herschel's  tacit  hypothesis  of  zero  extinction.  This  latter 
view,  however,  certainly  is  extreme,  and  probably  all  modern 
astronomers  agree  that  there  is  extinction  of  light  due  to  cosmical 
dust  in  space.  A  hazy  background  of  dust  is  shown  on  the 
photographs  of  the  Milky  Way  and  other  portions  of  the  sky,  and 
proved  to  pervade  the  solar  system  by  the  universal  prevalence 
of  meteors. 

Since,  however,  both  comets  and  nebulae  are  found  to  be 
extremely  tenuous  bodies,  and  observed  to  transmit  the  light  of 
stars  with  but  excessively  slight  enfeeblement,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  general  extinction  will  be  much  smaller  still,  but  yet  appreci- 
able. I  have  therefore  adopted  a  co-efficient  of  0.999,  about  one- 
hundredth  larger  than  Struve's,  as  best  harmonizing  all  known 
phenomena.  This  value,  it  is  true,  is  much  nearer  to  Herschel's 
than  to  Struve's  co-efficient,  yet  it  admits  an  extinction  of  light 
which  becomes  appreciable  at  great  distances,  while  for  moderate 
distances  it  is  nearly  insensible;  and  I  believe  this  to  correspond 
closely  with  all  the  known  facts  of  the  sidereal  universe. 

An  enfeeblement  to  one-twelfth  at  a  distance  appropriate  to 
stars  17  magnitudes  fainter,  could  easily  be  compensated  for  by  a 
corresponding  abnormal  brilliancy  of  the  remotest  stars,  which  on 
several  grounds  seems  to  be  highly  probable.  Thus  our  procedure 
involves  no  extravagant  assumptions  as  to  the  great  brightness  of 
the  most  distant  stars,  or  as  to  large  extinction  of  light,  while  on 
the  other  hand  it  avoids  Herschel's  tacit  hypothesis  of  zero  extinc- 
tion, which  certainly  is  unjustifiable.* 

*  In  an  important  paper  read  to  the  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences,  June  10, 
1911,  p.  459,  Professor  H.  von  Seeliger  likewise  reaches  the  conclusion  that  the 
absorption  is  very  small,  amounting  to  0.34  of  a  magnitude  at  780  times  the  dis- 
tance of  Sirius,  which  Seeliger  takes  for  the  border  of  the  sidereal  system. 


210         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

§8.    A  GRAPHICAL  METHOD  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  DEPTH  OF 
THE  GALAXY,  BASED  ON  THE  STUDY  OF  CLUSTERS. 

1.  Make  a  diagram  of  ten  or  twenty  concentric  circles,  sepa- 
rated by  equal  intervals,  each  corresponding  to  one  hundred  thou- 
sand light-years.    In  this  scheme  no  clusters  will  be  included 
within  the  central  circle,  because  the  actual  measurements  for 
parallax  have  excluded  this  possibility.    But  the  various  clusters 
of  the  N.G.C.  may  be  plotted  within  the  outer  circles,  or  beyond 
them  all,  according  to  the  results  given  by  Herschel's  rule  of  bright- 
ness. 

2.  It  is  required  therefore  to  locate  the  clusters,  and  to  indi- 
cate their  apparent  angular  diameters  by  dots  of  appropriate  size. 
Some  allowance  must  of  course  be  made  for  the  varying  stages  of 
development  of  the  different  clusters,  but  if  there  is  a  decreasing 
angular  diameter  with  distance  it  may  be  held  that  the  method  of 
estimating  distance  devised  by  Herschel  is  essentially  valid,  and 
in  fact  our  only  method  of  fathoming  these  immense  distances, 
and  thus  determining  the  depth  or  profundity  of  the  Milky  Way. 

3.  A  careful  attempt  has  been  made  to  apply  this  method 
using  the  data  of  the  N.G.C.,  and  the  results  of  the  Crossley  photo- 
graphs recently  obtained  at  Lick  Observatory.    The  results  of 
this  investigation  are  shown  to  confirm  the  present  theory. 

§9.    FINAL  TEST  OF  THE  INDEFINITE  EXTENSION  OF  THE  MILKY 

WAY  DESIRABLE. 

This  should  be  made  by  the  graphical  method  just  outlined, 
but  by  means  of  more  powerful  instruments  than  any  yet  systemat- 
ically employed  in  this  work.  To  feel  satisfied  that  the  universe 
extends  on  indefinitely,  we  must  have  proof  of  additional  clusters 
of  stars  of  smaller  magnitude,  and  more  compressed  constitution, 
as  from  the  narrowing  effect  of  perspective,  at  great  distances. 
Probably  we  shall  not  know  what  the  sidereal  heavens  contain  in 
the  way  of  vanishing  clusters  till  the  Milky  Way  is  systematically 
photographed  for  just  such  objects,  and  this  very  likely  will  require 
a  long  campaign  of  photographic  research  with  a  large  instrument. 


THE  HERSCHEL-SEE  THEORY  OF  THE  GALAXY. 

The  Sun  and  all  the  Stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  are  included  within  the  small  white  speck, 
below  the  center.  The  vacant  lane  extending  to  the  right  from  this  speck  may  produce  the  dark 
areas  of  the  Coal  Sacks  near  the  Southern  Cross.  When  we  look  outward  from  our  eccentric  situation 
the  Milky  Way  appears  brighest  and  broadest  towards  Sagittarius,  and  faintest  and  narrowest  towards 
Monoceros.  The  diameter  of  the  whole  Sidereal  -Universe  as  here  shown  is  so  great  that  light  could 
not  traverse  it  in  less  than  five  million  years.  This  Herschel-See  Theory  of  the  Galaxy  gives  the 
reader  a  good  idea  of  the  real  nature  of  the  magnificent  collection  of  millions  of  stars  which  appears 
to  us  as  the  clustering  stream  of  the  Milky  Way. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  211 

But  as  many  large  reflectors  are  now  coming  into  use,  we  may  hope 
for  it  before  many  years  elapse.  This  would  be  completing  on  a 
modern  scale  the  sidereal  soundings  left  somewhat  incomplete  by 
the  systematic  explorations  of  the  Herschels. 

In  a  private  letter,  written  in  response  to  my  recent  inquiry 
regarding  the  power  of  the  60-inch  reflector  of  the  Solar  Observa- 
tory at  Mt.  Wilson,  Professor  W.  S.  Adams,  the  acting  director, 
informs  me  that  this  fine  instrument  probably  will  show  visually 
stars  as  faint  as  18th  magnitude.  He  points  out,  however,  that 
the  magnitude  scale  is  not  well  defined  for  such  faint  objects,  and 
that  very  few  astronomers  have  enough  experience  to  fix  it  at  the 
present  time. 

Adams  also  informs  me  that  from  a  photograph  of  the  region 
of  the  northern  celestial  pole  of  four  hours'  duration,  Professor 
E.  C.  Pickering  has  derived  a  value  of  21.0  magnitude  for  the 
faintest  stars,  by  the  system  of  photographic  magnitudes  in  use  at 
the  Harvard  College  Observatory.  Obviously  there  is  some  un- 
certainity  in  this  value,  but  it  probably  is  not  extreme. 

In  answer  to  an  inquiry  as  to  the  possibility  of  getting  still 
fainter  stars  by  prolonging  the  exposure,  Professor  Adams  assures 
me  that  it  can  be  easily  done,  the  only  limit  being  the  brightness  of 
the  background  of  the  sky;  but  that  with  the  clear  air  of  Mt.  Wil- 
son this  would  not  be  reached  till  the  exposure  had  extended  over 
many  hours.  He  adds  that  it  takes  about  three  times  the  expos- 
ure to  obtain  a  star  one  magnitude  fainter.  From  the  data  here 
supplied  it  seems  certain  that  stars  as  faint  as  21.0  magnitude  may 
be  photographed  at  Mt.  Wilson,  with  the  60-inch  reflector,  and 
that  by  prolonging  the  exposure  several  additional  hours  or  through 
whole  nights,  stars  of  22.0  magnitude  probably  could  be  obtained. 

It  is  therefore  well  established  that  stars  17  magnitudes  fainter 
than  the  225  helium  stars,  with  average  magnitude  of  4.14,  recently 
investigated  at  Lick  Observatory,  may  now  be  photographed  with 
more  than  one  instrument;  and  the  value  of  A  =  2,512  used  in  our 
calculations  is  amply  justified.  In  fact  it  seems  probable  that 
instead  of  2,512  as  our  distance  multiplier  for  stars  17  magnitudes 


212         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

fainter,  we  might  have  used  the  larger  value  3,981,  corresponding 
to  stars  18  magnitudes  fainter  than  our  225  helium  stars  with 
average  magnitude  of  4.14.  This  would  almost  have  doubled  the 
calculated  depths  of  the  Milky  Way  throughout  the  foregoing 
discussion,  and  given  us  over  two  million  light-years,  exceeding 
the  profundity  originally  concluded  by  Herschel  in  1802.  In  the 
Phil.  Trans,  for  1800,  pp.  83-4,  Herschel  finds  by  a  different  pro- 
cess that  a  cluster  of  5,000  stars  visible  in  his  40-foot  telescope  is 
distant  11,765,475,948,678,678,769  miles,  "a  number  which  ex- 
ceeds the  distance  of  the  nearest  fixed  star  at  least  three  hundred 
thousand  times."  With  modern  data  this  proves  to  be  460,355 
times  the  distance  of  Alpha  Centauri,  or  2,001,120  light-years. 


§10.    SUMMARY  OF  THE  CHIEF  RESULTS  OF  THE  DETERMINATION 
OF  THE  DEPTH  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY. 

From  the  several  independent  and  mutually  confirmatory 
arguments  here  adduced  it  follows  that  the  depth  of  the  Milky 
Way  decidedly  exceeds  a  million  light-years,  and  substantially 
accords  with  the  profundity  concluded  by  the  illustrious  Herschel 
one  hundred  and  ten  years  ago. 

1.  Herschel  concluded  that  with  his  forty-foot  reflector  he 
perceived  stars  whose  light  had  occupied  two  million  years  in 
reaching  the  earth;  and  he  justly  remarked  that  he  had  seen  fur- 
ther into  space  than  any  human  being  before  him.     The  visual 
power  or  light  grasp  of  Herschel's  telescope  is  somewhat  surpassed 
by  modern  instruments;  and  much  additional  power  is  given  to 
the  modern  instrument  by  the  use  of  photography. 

2.  But  if,  on  the  one  hand,  the  modern  instruments  surpass 
Herschel' s  in  power,  there  is  on  the  other  some  increased  need  for 
this  in  that  we  now  attempt  to  take  account  of  the  extinction  of 
light  by  cosmical  dust  in  space.    Neglecting  this  loss  of  light, 
Herschel  may  have  slightly  overestimated  the  distances  to  which 
his  telescope  could  penetrate,  but  the  error  was  scarcely  of  sensible 
importance. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  213 

3.  With  our  greatest  modern  instruments  and  the  use  of 
photography  it  is  certain  that  we  can  observe  stars*  at  a  distance 
of  over  two  million  light-years,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  we  can 
penetrate  to  a  depth  of  about  five  million  light-years.  A  modern 
silver-on-glass  reflector  of  twelve  feet  aperture  would  give  about 
six  times  as  much  light  as  the  60-inch  reflector  at  Pasadena,  and 
with  this  gain  of  two  magnitudes  in  light  power  it  is  probable  that 
we  could  penetrate  into  space  at  least  twice  this  distance  (theoret- 
ically 2.512  is  the  factor)  or  to  a  depth  from  which  the  light  would 
take  ten  million  years  to  reach  the  earth. 

At  the  present  time  a  12-foot  reflector  is  possible,  and  the 
depth  to  which  we  can  penetrate  is  simply  a  question  of  telescopic 
power,  which  can  be  vastly  but  not  indefinitely  increased.  And 
this  is  true  in  spite  of  the  extinction  of  light  by  cosmical  dust  in 
space.  There  is  a  limit  to  the  distance  to  which  any  given  tele- 
scope can  penetrate,  but  it  increases  steadily  with  the  aperture, 
since  the  only  question  involved  is  one  of  enormous  light  grasp. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  telescope  of  not  less  than  12  feet  aper- 
ture may  be  built  for  use  on  the  Milky  Way.  With  such  a  giant 
instrument  discoveries  of  the  highest  order  might  confidently  be 
anticipated.  A  modern  expansion  of  our  views  of  the  sidereal 
universe  analogous  to  that  which  marked  the  great  epoch  of  Her- 
schel  would  follow,  with  the  most  beneficial  effects  upon  every 
branch  of  astronomical  science.  Recent  developments  in  many 
lines  show  that  the  epoch  of  great  discoveries  has  not  passed,  but 
is  in  fact  just  beginning:  and  the  estimates  here  laid  down,  as  to 
the  depth  and  magnificent  extent  of  the  Milky  Way,  convey  to  us 
but  a  dim  outline  of  the  discoveries  which  await  the  builders  of  the 
giant  telescopes  of  the  future.  In  this  great  advance  America 
may  naturally  be  expected  to  take  the  leading  part. 

Starlight  on  Loutre, 

Montgomery  City,  Missouri,  November  4,  1911. 

*  In  Astron.  Nachr.,  No.  4,536  Nov.  13  1911,  Professor  F.  W.  Very  concludes 
that  the  White  Nebulae  may  be  galaxies  at  a  distance  of  a  million  light-years.  The 
view  adopted  in  my  "Researches,"  Vol.  II.,  1910,  however,  is  much  more  probable, 
since  it  gives  continuity  to  the  various  types  of  bodies  observed  to  constitute  the 
sidereal  universe.  Note  added  Dec.  16,  1911. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
1912. 

THE  HERSCHEL-SEE  RESEARCHES  ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  CLUSTERS  AND 
ON  THE  BREAKING  UP  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY,  UNDER  THE  CLUSTER- 
ING POWER  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION.* 
By  T.  J.  J.  SEE. 

N  entering  upon  a  popular  address,  in  commemoration  of  the 
174th  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  the  illustrious  Sir  William 
Herschel,  on  the  general  subject  of  the  origin  of  clusters  and 
the  breaking  up  of  the  Milky  Way,  I  must  offer  a  slight  apology 
for  the  coupling  of  my  name  with  that  of  Herschel.  It  has  arisen 
not  so  much  from  any  preference  of  my  own,  as  from  a  faithful 
effort  to  discriminate  between  the  original  somewhat  undeveloped 
views  of  that  unrivaled  astronomer,  and  the  extension  and  verifica- 
tion of  his  theories  recently  made  by  me,  upon  the  basis  of  modern 
observational  data,  and  the  use  of  mathematical  methods  un- 
known in  Herschel' s  time.  According  to  modern  standards,  Her- 
schel's  views  were  not  developed  to  a  highly  finished  state;  and  yet 
they  contain  the  germs  of  some  of  the  most  remarkable  advances 
recently  made  in  Astronomy. 

Immediately  after  recovery  from  a  very  critical  illness  early 
in  1909, 1  was  fortunate  enough  to  become  intimately  acquainted 
with  Herschel's  neglected  but  priceless  researches  on  the  con- 
struction of  the  heavens  and  on  the  development  of  the  various 
types  of  celestial  bodies.  And  somewhat  later,  in  co-operation 
with  the  late  Sir  William  Huggins,  ex-President  of  the  Royal 
Society,  I  was  able  to  start  the  successful  movement  for  the  re- 
publication  of  Herschel's  Collected  Scientific  Papers  by  the  Royal 
Society  and  Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  London,  1912.  More- 
over, I  have  been  enabled  very  recently  to  verify  the  wonderful 

*  Address  delivered  at  Mare  Island,  California,  Nov.  15, 1912,  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  174th  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Sir  William  Herschel. 


SIR  WILLIAM  HERSCHEL  (1738-1822). 
(From  a  pastel  by  J.  Russell,  R.  A.,  1794  Herschel's  Collected  Works;  Vol.  I,  1912.) 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  215 

conclusions  of  Herschel  regarding  the  depth  of  the  Galaxy,  and  the 
origin  of  the  Globular  Clusters,  as  well  as  the  breaking  up  of  the 
Milky  Way,  under  the  clustering  power  of  universal  gravitation. 
Under  these  circumstances  probably  it  was  natural  that  astrono- 
mers should  unite  my  name  with  that  of  Herschel,  in  describing 
these  modern  developments,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  original 
views  of  a  century  ago,  which  have  now  been  established  on  a  firm 
basis  of  observation  and  mathematical  demonstration.  One  can 
scarcely  depart  from  this  discriminating  usage  without  introducing 
into  Science  a  confusion  which  would  be  quite  inadmissible. 

The  researches  on  the  depth  of  the  Milky  Way  were  finished 
in  1911,  and  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society  at  Philadelphia;  and  the  same  illustrious  society 
has  also  done  me  the  honor  to  include  in  its  Proceedings  for  April 
and  June,  1912,  the  "Dynamical  Theory  of  the  Globular  Clusters 
and  of  the  Clustering  Power  inferred  by  Herschel  from  the  Observed 
Figures  of  Sidereal  Systems  of  High  Order,"  which  was  read  on 
April  19,  1912. 

In  entering  upon  the  topic  of  the  depth  of  the  Milky  Way  and 
the  observed  distribution  of  clusters  it  may  naturally  be  asked 
why  the  distribution  of  clusters  is  associated  with  the  depth  of 
the  Milky  Way.  To  this  question  we  reply  that  it  was  found  by 
Sir  William  Herschel  that  the  clusters  congregate  along  the  path 
of  the  Milky  Way,  which  thus  appears  to  traverse  the  heavens  as 
a  clustering  stream.  Moreover,  it  was  found  by  Herschel  that  the 
sidereal  universe  is  enormously  extended  in  the  direction  of  the 
plane  of  this  starry  stratum,  and  is  relatively  of  but  very  small 
thickness. 

In  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1800,  pp.  83-4,  Herschel 
calculates  that  a  cluster  of  50,000  stars  visible  in  his  40-foot  tele- 
scope is  distant  11,765,475,948,678,678,679  miles,  "a  number 
which  exceeds  the  distance  of  the  nearest  fixed  star  at  least  three 
hundred  thousand  times."  With  modern  data  this  proves  to  be 
460,355  times  the  distance  of  Alpha  Centauri,  or  2,001,120  light- 
years.  In  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1802,  p.  498,  Her- 
schel again  resumes  the  problem  of  the  distance  of  the  most  remote 


216        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

objects  visible  in  his  40-foot  telescope,  and  concludes  that  certain 
clusters  having  a  nebulous  aspect  from  the  effect  of  distance  alone 
are  so  remote  that  their  rays  of  light  have  been  on  their  way 
"almost  two  millions  of  years."  He  adds  that  his  great  telescope 
has  enabled  him  to  penetrate  not  only  into  the  profound  depths 
of  space,  but  also  has  the  power  of  penetrating  into  time  past;  so 
that  Humboldt  remarks  in  his  Cosmos,  Vol.  I,  p.  145,  Bohn  Trans- 
lation, "the  light  of  remote  heavenly  bodies  present  us  with  the 
most  ancient  perceptible  evidence  of  the  existence  of  matter/' 

Now  the  point  of  this  whole  matter  of  the  great  depth  of  the 
Milky  Way  is  that  the  clusters,  being  scattered  somewhat  at  ran- 
dom in  this  starry  stratum,  are  by  the  effects  of  the  perspective, 
incident  to  the  vast  depth  of  the  stratum,  made  to  appear  to  lie 
in  or  near  the  Milky  Way.  Hence  the  Milky  Way  appears  to 
traverse  the  heavens  as  a  clustering  stream,  as  was  long  ago  re- 
marked by  Herschel.  Accordingly,  on  the  one  hand,  it  is  the  vast 
distances  of  the  clusters  —  more  than  usually  condensed  masses 
of  stars  —  which  causes  such  swarms  of  stars  to  appear  drawn  to 
small  dimensions  in  the  face  of  the  sky;  and,  on  the  other,  it  is  the 
great  depth  of  the  Milky  Way,  in  contrast  with  the  small  thick- 
ness of  this  starry  stratum,  which  causes  the  clusters,  by  the  effect 
of  perspective,  to  be  projected  along  the  path  of  the  Milky  Way, 
which  thus  assumes  the  aspect  of  a  clustering  stream. 

If  we  did  not  know  the  great  depth  of  the  Milky  Way,  we 
might  underrate  the  absolute  magnitude  of  the  clusters  observed 
along  its  path;  and  moreover  the  projection  of  these  masses  in 
that  direction  would  be  unaccountable.  Herein  lies  the  great 
significance  of  Herschel's  researches  a  century  ago;  for  that  unri- 
valed man  solved  this  problem  with  such  amazing  accuracy  that 
we  are  just  now  enabled  for  the  first  time  to  appreciate  the  sub- 
lime truths  at  which  he  arrived,  by  the  sure  instinct  of  genius, 
when  there  was  little  positive  data  to  guide  the  judgment  of  an  early 
explorer  of  the  heavens. 

Having  thus  obtained  some  insight  into  the  reasons  why  the 
clusters  appear  to  follow  the  course  of  the  Milky  Way,  owing  to 


Plate  1 

PHOTOGRAPH  OF  THE  GREAT  STAR  CLUSTER  OMEGA  GENTAURI, 

TAKEN  AT  THE  D.  O.  MlLLS  BRANCH  OF  LlGK  OBSERVATORY,  SANTIAGO  DE  CHILE, 

BY  H.  D.  CURTIS,  EXPOSURE  2^  30? 

(From  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910), 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  217 

the  depth  of  that  starry  stratum,  the  profundity  in  places  being 
not  less  than  two  million  light-years,  it  remains  to  consider  the 
origin  of  the  globular  clusters  of  stars,  which  are  justly  considered 
among  the  most  wonderful  objects  of  the  sidereal  universe. 

When  Sir  William  Herschel  surveyed  the  starry  heavens  with 
his  mighty  telescopes  he  found  great  numbers  of  clusters  each 
tending  to  the  globular  figure,  like  a  drop  of  dew,  or  a  planet  of 
the  solar  system;  and  he  inferred  that  by  their  mutual  gravitation 
the  stars  were  being  collected  into  swarms  and  globular  masses. 
Herschel's  conjecture,  however,  was  not  tested  by  rigorous  mathe- 
matical research,  and  it  was  only  in  January  of  the  present  year 
that  a  method  of  attacking  the  problem  occurred  to  me.  The 
paper  developed  in  February  and  recently  published  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  deals  with  the 
mathematical  theory  of  the  origin  and  development  of  clusters, 
by  the  capture  and  condensation  of  stars  gradually  collecting  in 
a  given  region  of  space.  It  confirms  and  establishes  forever  the 
Capture  Theory  of  Cosmical  Evolution  as  the  general  Law  of  Nature, 
because  it  is  easy  to  show  that  the  clusters  can  have  originated  in 
no  other  way  whatsoever. 

By  a  fortunate  train  of  thought  it  occurred  to  me  to  make  use 
of  what  is  known  to  geometers  as  Green's  theorem,  involving  sex- 
tuple and  even  nonuple  integrals  —  the  very  highest  order  of 
mathematics.  By  an  ingenious  use  of  the  principles  of  the  Cal- 
culus as  applied  to  the  expressions  for  the  mutual  potential  energy 
of  the  system,  which  must  decrease  with  the  time,  owing  to  inevi- 
table exhaustion,  it  was  possible  to  prove  how  a  cluster  slowly 
captures  the  stars  entering  the  region  of  its  development,  and  at 
the  same  time  condenses  into  a  smaller  space  and  becomes  more 
and  more  compressed,  until  it  finally  passes  into  a  perfect  blaze  of 
starlight  at  the  center.  The  unrivaled  Sir  William  Herschel 
declared  that  the  globular  clusters,  with  this  growth  of  central 
accumulation,  are  the  most  magnificent  objects  in  the  heavens, 
and  they  never  ceased  to  fill  him  with  wonder.  Well  may  their 
formation  engage  our  attention  now! 


218        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  successful  treatment  of  this  great 
question  requires  that  the  highest  order  of  mathematical  knowl- 
edge and  intuition,  be  combined  with  the  deepest  physical  insight 
into  the  order  of  Nature,  such  as  few  have  possessed  since  Herschel. 
And  it  is  not  probable  that  anyone  among  living  philosophers 
could  have  solved  this  titanic  problem,  which,  it  has  been  said, 
calls  for  the  united  intuition  of  Herschel  and  Newton  in  one  individ- 
ual, had  it  not  been  for  the  notable  outline  of  a  method  of  attack 
sketched  by  Herschel  himself. 

But  with  the  guidance  of  Herschel's  thought  and  modern 
mathematical  methods,  based  on  the  transformations  of  Green's 
theorem,  I  somehow  obtained  results  which  must  be  rated  among 
the  notable  achievements  of  Modern  Astronomy.  For  it  was 
proved  that  these  masses  of  stars  arise  from  the  clustering  power 
of  universal  gravitation. 

This  clustering  power  was  imagined  by  Herschel  to  operate 
like  gravitation  in  rounding  up  the  figure  of  a  planet.    He  also 
compared  it  to  the  action  of  the  molecular  forces  which  give  a  drop 
of  dew  such  globular  aspect.    We  see  the  same  influence  at  work 
in  producing  spherical  globules  of  mercury,  and  in  fact  of  all 
liquids  which  do  not  wet  the  support  on  which  they  rest.    The 
effect  of  surface  tension  in  decreasing  the  volume  and  rounding 
up  the  figure  of  a  soap  bubble  is  almost  exactly  analogous  to  the 
clustering  power  of  universal  gravitation  as  it  operates  to  mould 
the  figures  of  clusters  of  stars.    With  these  several  illustrations 
before  us,  we  shall  be  able  to  understand  the  Clustering  Power 
noticed  by  Herschel  to  be  at  work  throughout  the  sidereal  universe. 
Accordingly  when  the  astronomer  of  the  future  surveys  the 
clusters  along  the  starry  path  of  the  Galaxy,  he  will  indeed  behold 
traces  of  the  Clustering  Power  surmised  by  Herschel,  but  first 
established  by  modern  mathematical  methods  at  Mare  Island, 
in  1912.    Mathematicians  may  be  excused  for  holding  that  such 
sublime  researches  on  the  origin  of  clusters,  as  the  most  wonder- 
ful systems  in  the  universe,  are  among  the  noblest  achievements 
of  the  human  intellect, —  for  until  very  recently  we  would  scarcely 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  219 

have  believed  such  developments  possible;  and  yet  it  appears 
that  the  mathematical  proof  of  the  general  theory  outlined  by 
Herschel  has  been  heartily  welcomed  by  the  scientific  world.  Thus 
Dr.  J.  L.  E.  Dreyer,  the  learned  editor  of  Herschel's  Collected 
Scientific  Papers,  recently  wrote  as  follows: 

OBSERVATORY,  ARMAGH,  12  July,  1912. 
MY  DEAR  PROFESSOR  SEE: 

I  have  read  your  remarkable  paper  on  globular  clusters 
with  great  pleasure,  and  it  seems  to  me  that  your  theory  of  their 
origin  and  progress  accounts  perfectly  for  all  the  phenomena  which 
have  hitherto  been  so  obscure,  particularly  for  the  strange  fact 
of  nearly  all  the  stars  being  of  the  same  brightness.  You  have  of 
course  gone  very  much  further  than  William  Herschel  did,  but 
all  the  same,  he  was  wonderfully  clear-sighted,  and  it  is  a  pleasure 
to  an  admirer  of  him  to  see  his  views  so  well  corroborated  and 
developed.  "Back  to  Herschel,"  must  indeed  be  the  guiding 
principle  in  most  researches  in  sidereal  astronomy. 

Thanking  you  again  for  the  pleasure  your  paper  has  given 
me,  I  am  with  kind  regards, 

Yours  sincerely, 

J.  L.  E.  DREYER. 

Now  it  seems  to  me  that  if  we  have  learned  to  go  back  to 
Herschel  in  most  researches  in  sidereal  astronomy,  and  this  princi- 
ple came  to  be  introduced  through  my  studies  of  Herschel,  and 
the  extraordinary  good  fortune  in  securing  the  republication  of 
his  Collected  Scientific  Papers  through  the  generous  and  disinterest- 
ed efforts  of  my  revered  friend,  Sir  William  Huggins,  it  may  not 
be  altogether  inappropriate  for  me  to  celebrate  the  anniversary 
of  the  birth  of  Herschel.  Indeed,  the  revival  of  Herschel's  ideas 
in  astronomy  is  the  celebration  most  needed  in  the  scientific  world; 
and  as  this  has  taken  place  already,  we  may  rejoice  that  we  have 
lived  to  witness  this  notable  promotion  of  truth,  in  work  which 
has  been  generally  lost  sight  of  for  ninety  years,  since  Herschel's 
death  in  the  year  1822. 


220         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Even  during  his  lifetime  Herschel  worked  alone  on  the  great 
problems  which  engaged  his  attention.  He  was  the  only  astrono- 
mer of  his  age  with  a  penetrating  vision  into  the  spacial  depths 
of  immensity,  and  into  the  millions  of  ages  of  time  required  in 
the  building  of  the  universe.  Proctor  likewise  has  noticed  this 
isolation  of  the  great  Herschel;  for  in  Our  Place  Among  Infinities, 
p.  258,  he  says: 

"It  may  be  that  the  difficulty  and  complexity  of  the  problem 
he  had  taken  in  hand,  or  perchance  the  quiet  and  unobtrusive 
manner  in  which  he  presented  it  as  it  then  appeared  to  him,  or 
some  other  cause  may  have  been  in  operation,  but  certain  it  is 
that  very  little  notice  was  taken  of  Herschel's  special  work  then, 
or  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  None  helped  him,  though 
his  researches  were  manifestly  far  beyond  the  strength  of  a  single 
worker.  No  comments  on  his  stellar  observations,  so  far  as  they 
related  to  the  great  problem  he  was  attacking,  were  made  by  con- 
temporary astronomers." 

The  contrast  between  the  manly  independence  of  the  great 
Herschel  in  pursuing  single-handed  really  important  researches, 
and  the  feeble  policy  of  dependency  adopted  by  many  weak  astron- 
omers of  our  time,  under  the  euphonious  name  of  co-operation,  is 
striking  and  worthy  of  attention.  One  policy  represents  real 
power  of  leadership,  strength  and  capacity  for  achievement;  the 
other,  such  weakness  and  incapacity  that  it  requires  to  be  propped 
up. 

To  consider  Herschel's  impressions  of  the  origin  of  clusters 
and  nebulae,  we  need  only  recall  his  argument  for  a  Clustering 
Power  drawing  the  stars  together  into  clusters;  and  in  the  case 
of  nebulae  the  corresponding  argument  on  central  powers,  based 
on  the  increase  of  brightness  towards  their  centers.  Herschel 
noticed  that  all  the  globular  clusters  have  a  central  accumulation 
of  brightness  rapidly  increasing  towards  the  center;  and  in  the 
thousands  of  nebulae  he  found  that  a  similar  central  accumula- 
tion of  brightness  was  observable.  He  reasoned  that  the  clusters 
were  formed  by  stars  being  drawn  together  from  the  surrounding 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  221 

space,  under  the  clustering  power  of  universal  gravitation.  The 
central  accumulation  of  brightness  in  the  nebulae  was  to  his  mind 
an  equally  clear  indication  of  the  operation  of  central  powers 
arranging  the  nebulosity  in  concentric  shells  of  uniform  bright- 
ness, but  with  the  brightness  rapidly  increasing  towards  the  center, 
so  that  the  nuclei  of  the  nebulae  frequently  are  occupied  by  stars. 

One  must  admit  that  the  force  of  Herschel's  argument  is 
unanswerable.  Anyone  who  studies  it  will  be  convinced  that  it 
rests  on  a  firm  foundation.  And  as  gravitation  draws  bodies 
together,  it  was  natural  that  Herschel  should  explain  this  cluster- 
ing tendency  by  the  continued  operation  of  this  central  power 
throughout  millions  of  ages.  For  in  1802  Herschel  was  able  to 
adduce  proof  that  some  of  the  double  stars  he  had  observed  twenty 
years  before  were  in  orbital  motion;  and  the  force  causing  this 
orbital  motion  could  be  nothing  else  than  universal  gravitation. 
If  therefore  double  and  multiple  stars  are  governed  by  Newtonian 
gravitation,  the  same  force  must  be  assumed  to  operate  in  clusters 
and  nebulae  throughout  the  sidereal  universe. 

This  argument  of  Herschel  is  very  fine,  and  cannot  be  im- 
proved upon  to-day;  but  we  had  to  subject  it  to  an  observational 
test,  to  see  if  gravitation  really  governs  the  motions  of  double  and 
multiple  stars,  and  will  account  for  the  law  of  star-distribution 
in  clusters.  This  test  I  was  able  to  make  for  the  double  and  multi- 
ple stars  some  seventeen  years  ago;  and  during  the  present  year  I 
was  so  fortunate  as  to  develop  a  mathematical  proof  that  the 
clustering  power  operating  in  globular  clusters  is  nothing  else  than 
Newtonian  gravitation. 

This  proof  is  not  only  one  of  great  generality,  from  the  mathe- 
matical point  of  view,  but  also  accords  with  the  theory  of  the 
mutual  potential  energy  of  a  cluster  of  stars,  and  its  inevitable 
exhaustion  under  the  mutual  approach  of  these  bodies.  Thus  as 
the  stars  by  mutual  gravitation  tend  to  be  drawn  together,  the 
cluster  is  gradually  more  and  more  compressed,  with  density 
accumulating  towards  the  center  according  to  certain  laws  ad- 
mitting of  accurate  mathematical  expression. 


222         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

Moreover,  I  was  able  to  show  that  a  star  falling  into  such  a 
cluster  will  have  a  tendency  to  be  entrapped,  so  that  it  cannot 
again  escape,  but  works  down  towards  the  interior  of  the  mass. 
This  explains  the  central  accumulation  of  density  in  both  clusters 
and  nebulae;  for  the  nebulae  are  now  known  to  be  discontinuous 
masses  of  solid  particles,  with  luminous  elements  interspersed, 
not  really  fluid  masses  with  figures  of  equilibrium  sustained  by 
hydrostatic  pressure,  as  was  long  believed  by  Laplace  and  his 
successors. 

The  law  of  gathering  in,  which  is  applicable  to  the  globular 
clusters,  is  therefore  applicable  also  to  the  nebulae,  and  the  central 
condensation  observed  in  all  these  bodies  may  be  directly  referred 
to  the  clustering  power  of  universal  gravitation,  and  to  no  other 
force  whatsoever.  It  is  a  great  satisfaction  to  have  proof  that 
there  is  only  one  central  power  in  the  universe  —  namely  New- 
tonian gravitation,  which  is  shown  to  govern  the  motions  of  the 
bodies  of  the  solar  system  with  such  wonderful  accuracy. 

The  Herschel-See  researches  on  clusters  and  nebulae  thus 
clearly  established  their  mode  of  formation.  And  the  same  argu- 
ment applies  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  Milky  Way.  The  grandeur 
of  the  latter  conception  is  worthy  of  the  genius  of  Herschel,  who 
studied  the  effects  of  forces  now  at  work  as  they  will  accumulate 
in  the  course  of  millions  of  ages. 

My  own  proof  that  dust  is  expelled  from  the  stars  to  form 
nebulae  in  the  desert  regions  of  starless  space,  and  thus  tend  to 
preserve  the  Milky  Way  from  the  indefinite  effects  of  the  ravages 
of  time,  completes  the  argument  outlined  by  Herschel  on  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  Milky  Way,  and  shows  that  there  is  a  Cyclical  Pro- 
cess at  work  in  Nature  for  the  preservation  of  the  entire  sidereal 
system. 

This  question,  as  well  as  that  of  the  depth  of  the  Milky  Way, 
was  discussed  by  Herschel,  Laplace,  and  Napoleon  at  Paris,  Aug. 
8, 1802,  as  we  learn  by  the  account  of  this  interview  noted  down  by 
Herschel  at  the  time  and  recently  brought  to  light  by  the  publi- 
cations of  Herschel's  Collected  Scientific  Papers. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  223 

On  page  LXII  of  Dr.  J.  L.  E.  Dreyer's  introduction  to  Her- 
schel's  works  we  read  from  the  notes  made  by  Herschel  at  the 
timer 

"The  First  Consul  then  asked  a  few  questions  relating  to 
astronomy  and  the  construction  of  the  heavens,  to  which  I  made 
such  answers  as  seemed  to  give  him  great  satisfaction.  He  also 
addressed  himself  to  M.  LaPlace  on  the  same  subject  and  held  a 
considerable  argument  with  him,  in  which  he  differed  from  that 
eminent  mathematician.  The  difference  was  occasioned  by  an 
exclamation  of  the  First  Consul's,  who  asked  in  a  tone  of  exclama- 
tion or  admiration  (when  we  were  speaking  of  the  extent  of  the 
sidereal  heavens)  'and  who  is  the  author  of  all  this?'  M.  de  La 
Place  wished  to  show  that  a  chain  of  natural  causes  would  account 
for  the  construction  and  preservation  of  the  wonderful  system; 
this  the  First  Consul  rather  opposed.  Much  may  be  said  on  the 
subject;  by  joining  the  arguments  of  both  we  shall  be  led  to 

'Nature  and  Nature's  God.' "As  M.  La  Place  and  I 

went  and  returned  in  a  carriage  by  ourselves,  I  led  the  conversa- 
tion upon  the  subject  of  my  last  papers,  of  which  I  gave  him  some 
of  the  outlines.  I  mentioned  the  various  possible  combinations 
of  revolving  stars  united  in  double  or  triple  systems.  When  I 
mentioned  three  stars  at  an  equal  distance  revolving  round  a  cen- 
ter, he  remarked  that  he  had  shown  in,  I  believe,  his  Mecanique 
Celeste,  that  six  stars  could  turn  round  in  a  ring  about  their  common 
center  of  gravity." 

It  is  now  evident  that  the  great  questions  considered  most 
wonderful  by  Herschel,  Laplace  and  Napoleon  have  recently  been 
revived  and  their  solutions  verified  mathematically.  Accord- 
ingly it  only  remains  to  illustrate  by  means  of  the  lantern  the 
wonders  of  the  starry  heavens,  and  to  point  out  the  visible  break- 
ing up  of  the  Milky  Way  so  clearly  foreseen  by  the  great  Herschel 
a  century  ago.  He  was  so  far  in  advance  of  his  age  that  we  are 
just  now  beginning  to  appreciate  his  genius,  after  an  unaccount- 
able neglect  of  ninety  years.  It  is  one  of  the  proudest  recollect- 
tions  of  my  life  that  I  was  able  to  start,  and,  with  the  co-operation 


224         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

of  the  late  Sir  William  Huggins,  make  effective  the  movement  for 
the  republication  of  the  Collected  Works  of  Herschel,  —  by  which 
this  great  man  may  again  speak  to  the  world  and  teach  us  some 
of  the  sublime  truths  he  discovered  in  the  course  of  his  profound 
explorations  of  the  sidereal  universe. 

Mare  Island,  California. 
November  15,  1912. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
1912 

CONCLUSIONS   DRAWN  FROM   THE   NEW    SCIENCE  OF  COSMOGONY.* 

By  T.  J.  J.  SEE. 

T  may  be  found  convenient,  as  an  aid  to  the  memory,  in 
making  a  rapid  review  of  the  problems  of  Celestial  Evolu- 
tion, to  collect  in  one  place  a  summary  of  the  principal  con- 
clusions at  which  we  have  arrived  as  a  result  of  the  development 
of  the  New  Science  of  Cosmogony.  The  following  paragraphs  are 
based  chiefly  on  those  given  in  the  "Dynamical  Theory  of  the 
Globular  Clusters "f  and  in  a  longer  article  entitled  "Outlines  of  a 
New  Science  of  the  Stars, "t  and  thus  very  complete;  but  we  leave 
it  essentially  unaltered,  as  it  seems  better  to  suffer  the  inconveni- 
ence of  slight  repetition  than  to  fail  to  give  the  general  reader  a 
sufficiently  succinct  and  impressive  view  of  this  vast  subject  of 
sidereal  evolution. 

1.  The  most  remarkable  result  of  the  New  Science  of  Cos- 
mogony is  the  intimate  and  necessary  connection  shown  to  exist 
between  the  most  diverse  celestial  phenomena;  so  that  they  are 
woven  into  an  unbroken  and  continuous  whole,  thus  assuring  the 
perfect  order  and  harmony  to  be  expected  from  the  discovery  of 
true  Laws  of  Nature. 

2.  The  time-honored  theories  of  Kant  and  Laplace  and 
their  followers  are  permanently  abandoned,  as  being  definitely 
overthrown,  and  therefore  of  no  validity  in  the  present  state  of 
science.     In  the  future  the  interest  in  these  theories  will  be  purely 

*  A  work  on  "Popular  Cosmogony  "  embodying  the  substance  of  these  con- 
clusions is  shortly  to  be  published  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 

t  Proceedings  American  Philosophical  Society,  Philadelphia,  April-June,  1912. 

t  Communicated  to  Crelle's  Journal  for  Pure  and  Applied  Mathematics, 
Berlin,  November,  1912 


226        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

historic,  like  that,  for  example,  in  the  abandoned  Ptolemaic  system 
of  Astronomy. 

3.  In  the  place  of  these  abandoned  hypotheses  there  is 
developed  the  Capture  Theory  of  Cosmical  Evolution,  based  on  the 
general  principle  of  the  independent  formation  of  the  nuclei  of  all 
bodies  at  a  great  distance  and  their  gradual  aggregation  into  sys- 
tems, under  the  clustering  power  of  universal  gravitation,  by 
which  the  attendant  bodies  are  added  to  the  central  masses  about 
which  they  now  revolve  as  satellites,  planets,  components  of 
double  and  multiple  stars  and  clusters. 

4.  This  New  Foundation  for  Cosmogony  is  proved  to  be  a 
Fundamental  Law  of  Nature,  operating  uniformly  throughout  the 
sidereal  universe.    Under  repulsive  forces  cosmical  dust  is  ex- 
pelled from  the  stars  and  diffused  throughout  space  for  the  forma- 
tion of  new  nebulae,  as  it  gradually  collects  into  clouds  under  the 
influence  of  universal  gravitation;   and  the  condensation  of  the 
nebulae  produces  sidereal  systems  of  every  description,  from  the 
very  lowest  to  the  very  highest  order.    This  dual  process  of  repul- 
sion and  attraction,  involving  the  mutual  interaction  of  Nature's 
chief  forces,  makes  possible  the  development  of  a  New  Science  of 
the  Stars. 

5.  From  the  tabular  data*  calculated  by  Babinet's  criterion 
it  is  clear  that  no  such  phenomena  as  the  detachment  of  Laplacean 
rings  or  zones  of  vapor  in  the  solar  nebula  ever  took  place;  but 
on  the  contrary,  the  planets  were  added  on  to  the  sun   and 
the  satellites  added  on  to  their  several  planets,  the  nuclei  in 
every  case  having  originated  in  the  distance,  and  subsequently 
approached  the  centers  about  which  they  now  revolve. 

6.  And  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  roundness  of  the 
planetary  orbits  had  arisen  from  the  secular  action  of  a  nebular 
resisting  medium,  a  new  ground  became  available  for  concluding 
that  the  nuclei  of  the  planets  were  formed  by  accretion  at  a  great 
distance  from  the  sun;   and  as  they  neared  that  center,  by  the 
growth  of  the  sun's  mass  and  by  the  tangential  resistance  to  their 

*  The  table  is  given  on  p.  168. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  227 

orbital  motion,  their  orbits  were  made  rounder  and  rounder,  till 
they  so  much  resembled  circles  as  to  lead  the  Greek  philosophers 
to  infer  that  the  Deity  had  chosen  this  supposed  perfect  geometri- 
cal figure  for  the  paths  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

7.  Now  the  drawing  in  of  the  planets  from  a  great  distance 
towards  the  sun  requires  the  building  up  of  the  central  mass,  to 
accomplish  this  narrowing  up  of  the  system;  and  such  growth  of 
the  sun's  mass  would  naturally  follow  from  the  destruction  of 
millions  of  myriads  of  comets  passing  very  near  the  sun  in  perihe- 
lion and  by  their  disintegration  giving  a  resisting  medium  of  cosmi- 
cal  dust  for  building  up  the  planets,  and  decreasing  the  major 
axes  and  eccentricities  of  their  orbits. 

8.  What  therefore  can  the  comets  be  but  survivals  of  the 
ancient  nebula  out  of  which  the  solar  system  has  been  built  up? 
Fortunately  this  logical  inference  is  confirmed  by  Stromgren's 
celebrated  investigations  showing  that  all  the  cometary  orbits 
are  elliptical;  and  thus  they  come  to  us  from  a  distant  "home", 
which  was  also  the  birthplace  of  the  nuclei  of  the  planets. 

9.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  process  of  development  here 
outlined  is  always  from  the  outside  towards  the  center  —  diamet- 
rically opposite  to  the  abandoned  doctrine  of  the  throwing  off  of 
rings  and  zones  of  vapor,  which  has  in  fact  no  existence  in  Nature. 

10.  And  this  principle  of  formation  in  the  distance  and 
building  up  towards  the  center  by  the  transfer  of  matter  from  the 
periphery  towards  the  interior  regions  is  fully  verified  in  all  types 
of  systems,  from  the  satellites  and  planets,  to  the  double  and 
multiple  stars  and  clusters  and  star-clouds  of  the  Milky  Way. 

11.  Upon  this  secure  basis  of  observation  and  known  cen- 
tripetal tendency  of  universal  gravitation,  the  Capture  Theory  is 
seen  to  be  a  logical  development  of  the  Clustering  Power  of  gravita- 
tion noticed  by  Herschel  to  be  moulding  the  figures  of  nebulae  and 
clusters  throughout  the  sidereal  universe. 

12.  As  intimated  in  the  first  section  of  the  paper  on  the 
"Dynamical  Theory  of  the  Globular  Clusters,"  the  problem  of  n 
bodies,  under  ideal  dynamical  conditions,  remains  forever  beyond 


228         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

the  power  of  the  most  general  methods  of  analysis;  but  the  dynam- 
ical theory  of  clusters  gives  us  the  one  secular  solution  of  this  prob- 
lem found  under  actual  conditions  -in  nature.  For  when  n  is 
of  the  order  of  1,000,  so  as  to  give  rise  to  a  cluster,  the  Clustering 
Power  observed  by  Herschel  operates  to  exhaust  the  mutual  poten- 
tial energy  of  the  system,  and  bring  about  increasing  accumulation 
in  the  center,  so  that  the  cluster  finally  unites  into  a  single  mass 
of  enormous  magnitude.  Probably  the  giant  stars  of  the  type  of 
Canopus  and  Arcturus  have  arisen  in  this  way. 

13.  And  since  attendant  bodies  of  every  class  —  as  satel- 
lites, planets,  comets,  double  and  multiple  stars  —  tend  every- 
where to  approach  the  centers  about  which  they  revolve,  as  an 
inevitable  effect  of  the  growth  of  the  central  masses  and  of  the 
action  of  the  resisting  medium  over  long  ages,  it  follows  that  the 
secular  solution  of  the  problem  of  clusters  is  more  or  less  valid  for 
all  cosmical  systems.    They  finally  end  by  the  absorption  of  the 
attendant  bodies  in  the  central  masses  which  now  govern  their 
motions. 

14.  The  dynamical  theory  of  globular  clusters  shows  that 
the  Clustering  Power  inferred  by  Herschel  is  nothing  else  than  the 
action  of  universal  gravitation;  and  that  it  operates  on  all  sidereal 
systems,  but  does  not  produce  the  cumulative  effect  which  Her- 
schel ascribed  to  the  ravages  of  time  inside  of  millions  of  ages. 

15.  The  globular  clusters  are  formed  by  the  gathering  to- 
gether of  stars  and  elements  of  nebulosity  from  all  directions  in 
space;  and  this  points  to  the  expulsion  of  dust  from  the  stars  of 
the  Milky  Way,  and  its  collection  about  the  region  of  the  forma- 
tion in  such  manner  as  to  give  essential  symmetry  in  the  final 
arrangement  of  the  cluster,  which  doubtless  has  some  motion  of 
rotation,  and  originally  a  tendency  to  spiral  movement. 

16.  The  stars  and  smaller  masses  are  captured  by  the  mutual 
action  of  the  other  members  of  the  cluster,  and  worked  down 
towards  the  center  of  the  mass.    This  gives  a  central  density  in 
excess  of  that  appropriate  to  a  sphere  of  monatomic  gas  in  con- 
vective  equilibrium  (A.N.,  4053,  and  A.N.,  4104). 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  229 

17.  The  density  of  the  clusters  is  greater  on  the  outer  border 
than  in  a  globe  of  monatomic  gas,  which  shows  that  stars  are  still 
collecting  from  the  surrounding  regions  of  space.    The  starless 
aspect  of  the  remoter  regions  about  clusters  is  an  effect  of  the 
ravages  of  time,  as  correctly  inferred  by  Herschel  in  the  course  of 
his  penetrating  sweeps  of  the  starry  heavens. 

18.  And  just  as  clusters  under  the  mutual  gravitation  of 
the  component  stars  contract  their  dimensions,  with  time,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  growth  of  the  central  masses,  so  also  do  other  systems, 
whether  the  mass-distribution  be  single,  giving  a  system  made  up 
of  a  sun  and  planets,  or  double,  triple  and  multiple,  giving  binary, 
triple  or  multiple  stars,  or  sidereal  systems  of  still  higher  order. 
The  tendency  everywhere  is  from  a  wider  to  a  narrower  distribu- 
tion of  the  large  bodies;   while  the  only  throwing  off  that  ever 
occurs  is  of  particles  driven  away  from  the  stars  by  the  action  of 
repulsive  forces. 

19.  The  orbits  of  the  stellar  and  planetary  systems  are 
decreased  by  the  growth  of  the  central  masses  and  rounded  up 
by  the  action  of  the  nebular  resisting  medium.    And  in  like  man- 
ner all  clusters  tend  to  assume  spherical  or  globular  figures,  so  as 
to  justify  the  expression  of  Plato,  that  the  Deity  always  geom- 
etrizes;  or  Newton's  remark  that  the  agency  operating  in  the 
construction  of  the  solar  system  was  "very  skilled  in  mechanics 
and  geometry. " 

20.  Newton  required  the  intervention  of  the  Deity  to  give 
the  planets  revolving  motion  in  their  orbits,  because  in  the  absence 
of  repulsive  forces  he  could  not  account  for  the  dispersion  of  the 
matter,  so  as  to  produce  the  tangential  motions  actually  observed. 
By  means  of  the  theory  of  repulsive  forces,  however,  it  is  now 
possible  to  explain  these  projectile  motions,  which  Herschel  like- 
wise pointed  to  as  the  chief  agency  for  the  preservation  of  sidereal 
systems.    The  only  assumption  necessary  is  an  unsymmetrical 
figure  of  the  primordial  nebula,  giving  a  whirling  motion  about 
the  center  as  the  system  develops;   and  since  the  dust  gathers 
from  all  directions  it  is  certain  that  this  lack  of  perfect  sym- 


230         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

inetry  will  nearly  always  develop,  as  we  see  also  by  the  spiral 
nebulae. 

21.  It  is  this  unsymmetrical  form  of  the  spiral  nebulae  pro- 
duced by  the  gathering  of  the  dust  from  the  stars,  or  the  slight 
relative  tangential  motion  of  stars  formed  separately  but  finally 
made  to  revolve  together  as  a  binary  system,  that  gives  the  binary 
stars  the  projectile  forces,  with  which  they  are  set  revolving  in 
their  orbits.     In  no  case  have  they  resulted  from  the  rupture 
of  a  rotating  mass  of  fluid  under  conditions  of  hydrostatic  pressure, 
as  formerly  believed  by  Darwin,  Poincare  and  See. 

22.  Even  if  the  rotation  could  become  rapid  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  separation,  under  conditions  of  hydrostatic  pressure,  by 
rupture  of  a  figure  of  equilibrium,  there  would  still  be  the  equal 
or  greater  difficulty  of  explaining  the  origin  of  the  primitive  rapid 
rotation.    This  last  difficulty  escaped  our  notice  till  we  came  to 
assign  the  cause  of  rotations,  and  found  that  mechanical  throwing 
off  was  impossible  under  actual  conditions  in  nature.    It  is  there- 
fore recognized,  from  the  definite  proof  furnished  by  Babinet's 
criterion  in  the  solar  system,  that  such  a  thing  as  a  throwing  off 
never  takes  place;  but  that  all  planetary  and  stellar  bodies  are 
formed  in  the  distance,  and  afterwards  near  the  centers  about 
which  they  subsequently  revolve. 

23.  This  gives  us  a  Fundamental  Law  of  the  Firmament — the 
planets  being  added  on  the  sun,  the  satellites  added  on  to  their  planets, 
the  moon  added  on  to  the  earth,  and  the  companions  added  on  to  the 
double  and  multiple  stars  —  which  is  now  found  to  be  beautifully 
confirmed  by  the  dynamical  theory  of  the  globular  clusters.    It  is  not 
often  that  such  a  great  Law  of  Nature  can  be  brought  to  light,  and  it  is 
worthy  of  the  more  consideration  from  the  circumstance  that  it  ex- 
plains all  classes  of  stellar  systems  by  a  single  general  principle. 

24.  And  just  as  the  clustering  power  of  gravitation  follows 
from  the  Newtonian  law  of  attraction,  so  on  the  other  hand  are 
repulsive  forces  required  throughout  Nature  to  produce  the  pri- 
mordial dispersion  of  dust  for  the  subsequent  condensation  of  this 
nebulosity  into  stars  and  systems. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  231 

25.  Returning  now  to  the  solar  system,  and  noticing  this 
building  up  of  the  central  masses  from  without,  we  find  that  of 
the  many  small  bodies  crossing  the  orbits  of  the  planets,  some 
have  been  captured  and  made  satellites,  most  of  them  revolving 
direct,  but  a  few  revolving  retrograde. 

26.  By  the  preponderance  of  direct  revolving  satellites,  and 
the  collision  of  such  masses  with  the  planets,  their  globes  are  given 
direct  rotations  on  their  axes;  and  their  obliquities  thus  tend  to 
disappear,  as  in  the  typical  case  of  Jupiter,  with  an  obliquity  of 
only  three  degrees. 

27.  The  satellites  therefore  were  originally  independent 
planets  revolving  in  regular  elliptical  orbits  about  the  sun;  and 
what  is  true  of  the  satellites  generally  is  true  necessarily  of  the 
satellite  of  our  earth.    The  moon  therefore  is  a  captured  planet. 

28.  All  these  satellites  are  now  much  nearer  their  centers 
of  motion  than  when  first  captured;  for  the  planetary  masses  have 
grown  as  their  satellites  revolved  in  the  nebular  resisting  medium 
which  so  beautifully  rounded  up  their  orbits. 

29.  The  resisting  medium  implies  collisions  of  the  larger 
bodies  with  smaller  ones,  and  thus  the  craters  and  maria  on  the 
moon  bear  witness  to  the  terrible  impacts  involved  in  the  creative 
processes  by  which  the  present  beautiful  order  of  the  solar  system 
was  developed. 

30.  Similar  impacts  once  indented  the  terrestrial  globe,  and 
the  depressions  now  occupied  by  our  oceans  arose  from  the  larger 
of  these  catastrophes.    But  since  the  atmosphere  and  oceans 
developed,  geological  changes  have  modified  the  earth  by  destroy- 
ing the  original  craters  and  building  up  mountains  formed  by  the 
sea  and  therefore  running  as  great  walls  along  the  margin  of  the 
oceans,  as  in  the  typical  case  of  the  Andes  in  South  America. 

31.  The  mass  of  the  sun  still  is  growing,  and  thus  there  is  a 
small  secular  acceleration  of  the  sun,  as  first  inferred  by  Euler  in 
1749,  which  was  recently  confirmed  by  Dr.  Cowell's  researches 
on  the  records  of  ancient  eclipses,  handed  down  by  the  Greeks  and 
Babylonians. 


232         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

32.  In  the  same  way  the  ancient  eclipses  show  an  outstand- 
ing secular  acceleration  of  the  mean  motion  of  the  moon  amount- 
ing to  2".0  per  century.    This  is  observational  proof  that  the 
moon  still  is  nearing  the  earth,  and  it  points  directly  to  the  capture 
of  our  satellite  at  an  epoch  some  400  million  years  ago. 

33.  The  mass  of  the  excessively  brilliant  helium  stars  may 
be  decreasing,  because  more  matter  is  carried  away  by  repulsive 
forces  than  is  gathered  in  by  universal  gravitation;  but  eventu- 
ally a  balance  will  be  attained,  and  when  the  solar  stage  is  reached, 
and  the  mass  increases,  the  attendant  planets  will  have  their  mean 
motions  accelerated  as  in  the  solar  system. 

34.  The  increase  of  the  central  mass  alone  may  draw  the 
planets  nearer,  but  nothing  can  decrease  the  eccentricities  of  their 
orbits  except  motion  in  a  resisting  medium,  as  has  been  shown  by 
the  researches  of  Lehmann-Filhes  and  Stromgren,  (A.N.,  3,479-80; 
A.N.,  3,897). 

35.  The  resisting  medium  is  proved  to  pervade  all  space 
by  the  nebulosity  shown  on  the  background  of  Barnard's  magnifi- 
cent photographs  of  the  Milky  Way,  and  by  the  phenomena  of 
variable  stars,  which  are  thus  fully  explained.    In  the  related 
phenomena  of  temporary  stars  the  collisions  are  intense  enough 
to  produce  violent  conflagrations,  and  therefore  are  with  attendant 
bodies  of  the  order  of  planets  or  very  large  Comets. 

36.  As  the  moon  is  a  captured  planet,  it  is  evident  that  the 
earth  never  did  rotate  much,  if  any,  faster  than  at  present;  and 
the  theories  ascribing  to  the  moon  a  terrestrial  origin  advanced 
by  Lord  Kelvin  and  Sir  George  Darwin  in  1879  must  therefore  be 
unconditionally  given  up.    Their  reasoning  was  justifiable  at  the 
time,  but  is  now  recognized  to  be  vitiated  by  a  false  premise,  and 
thus  is  one  of  the  most  singular  deceptions  in  the  history  of 
Science. 

37.  When  the  great  Euler  in  1749  inferred  that  the  planets 
had  originated  far  from  the  sun,  he  anticipated  to  some  slight 
extent  the  theory  held  today.    But  the  appearance  of  the  rings 
of  Saturn,  and  the  roundness  of  the  orbits  of  the  planets  and  satel- 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  233 

lites  caused  Laplace  to  develop  the  theory  of  detachment  by  rota- 
tion, from  very  oblate  figures  of  equilibrium  as  first  calculated  by 
Newton.  This  unjustifiable  inference  long  proved  deceptive,  and 
made  it  impossible  to  develop  a  Science  of  Cosmogony  based  on  the 
actual  processes  of  Nature. 

38.  From  the  original  extent  of  the  solar  system  it  is  now 
evident  that  other  planets  exist  beyond  Neptune;  and  that  the 
present  planetary  system  is  of  vast  extent,  otherwise  Neptune's 
orbit  would  not  be  so  perfectly  round  as  it  is  observed  to  be. 

39.  And  just  as  the  light  of  our  moon  is  variable,  owing  to 
the  craters  and  maria  by  which  the  surface  is  covered,  so  also  the 
variability  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  must  be  ascribed 
to  the  same  cause.    The  roundness  of  the  orbits  of  the  satellites 
shows  that  they  have  suffered  innumerable  collisions  with  smaller 
masses;  and  naturally  they  too  are  covered  with  craters  and  maria 
which  produce  the  variability  in  their  light  established  by  the 
photometric  researches  of  Guthnick. 

40.  The  observed  smaller  eccentricity  for  spectroscopic  than 
for  visual  binary  stars  is  in  accord  with  the  modern  Capture  Theory ; 
for  as  the  bodies  near  the  center  so  as  to  become  spectroscopic 
binaries  their  orbits  are  more  and  more  rounded  up,  and  thus  in 
contracting  they  acquire  small  eccentricity. 

41.  The  arrangement  observed  in  triple  stars,  with  the 
close  companion  well  within  the  orbit  of  the  remote  companion, 
is  the  outgrowth  of  stable  movements  surviving,  while  unstable 
ones  have  been  destroyed,  as  in  the  solar  system,  and  generally 
throughout  the  sidereal  universe. 

42.  The  central  accumulation  of  stars  in  clusters  is  the  out- 
growth of  the  Capture  Process,  slowly  gathering  in  masses  from 
without,  just  as  Jupiter  gathers  the  passing  comets  within  his 
own  orbit. 

43.  As  sidereal  systems  of  lower  order  are  conserved  by  pro- 
jectile forces,  it  is  probable  that  the  clusters  likewise  have  a  spiral 
motion  of  rotation,  with  similar  projectile  forces  tending  to  coun- 
teract simple  progressive  collapse.    The  period  of  the  orbital 


234         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

revolution  of  the  stars  of  a  cluster  is  found  to  be  common  to  all, 
without  regard  to  the  dimensions  of  the  elliptical  orbits  described, 
and  thus  the  whole  system  may  have  a  common  period  of  oscilla- 
tion, after  which  the  initial  condition  is  perfectly  restored.  This 
possibility  in  the  dynamics  of  a  cluster  is  exceedingly  wonderful, 
and  results  from  the  central  attraction  depending  directly  on  the 
distance. 

44.  The  equality  of  brightness  in  star  clusters  shows  that 
some  process  of  compensation  between  the  attractive  and  repul- 
sive forces  has  produced  stars  of  wonderful  uniformity  of  luster. 
Thus  the  present  investigation  confirms  the  previous  researches 
on  the  evolution  of  the  stellar  systems,  which  have  laid  the  founda- 
tions for  a  new  science  of  the  starry  heavens. 

45.  Accordingly,  the  Capture  Theory  of  Cosmical  Evolution 
being  now  firmly  established  for  the  clusters,  where  the  nature  of 
the  process  is  entirely  clear,  it  becomes  at  once  a  guide  to  us  in 
dealing  with  systems  of  lower  order;  and  we  see  that  the  Law  of 
Nature  is  uniform  and  everywhere  the  same — the  large  bodies  work- 
ing in  towards  the  centers  of  attraction,  while  the  only  throwing 
off  that  ever  takes  place  is  of  small  particles  driven  out  of  the  stars 
by  the  action  of  repulsive  forces.    All  planetary  bodies  are  formed 
in  the  distance,  and  have  their  orbits  reduced  in  size  by  increase 
of  the  central  masses,  and  rounded  up  by  moving  in  a  resisting 
medium.     This  is  a  perfectly  general  law  of  the  sidereal  universe.    It 
verifies  the  early  conjectures  of  Plato  and  Newton  as  to  the  stability 
of  the  order  of  the  world,  and  shows  that  these  illustrious  philosophers 
were  quite  justified  in  concluding  that  the  Deity  always  geometrizes. 

The  spiral  nebulae  tend  to  develop  systems  with  rounder  and 
rounder  orbits,  and  the  clusters  made  up  of  thousands  of  stars 
assume  globular  figures  with  minimal  surfaces  and  internal  density 
so  arranged  as  to  give  maximum  exhaustion  of  the  potential  energy . 

46.  This  is  geometry  of  the  most  marvelous  kind,  as  we 
find  it  impressed  on  the  systems  of  the  sidereal  universe;  and  the 
perfection  of  this  most  beautiful  science  of  celestial  geometry  may 
be  considered  the  ultimate  object  of  the  labors  of  the  astronomer. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  235 

The  philosophic  observer  is  not  and  never  can  be  content  with 
mere  observations  of  details  which  do  not  disclose  the  living,  all- 
pervading  spirit  of  Nature. 

47.  If,  then,  the  mystery  of  the  gathering  of  stars  into 
clusters  is  now  penetrated  and  traced  to  the  clustering  power  of 
universal  gravitation,  so  also  is  the  mystery  of  the  converse  prob- 
lem of  starless  space,  which  was  a  subject  of  such  profound  medi- 
tation by  the  great  Herschel. 

48.  This  incomparable  astronomer  likewise  correctly  con- 
cluded that  the  breaking  up  of  the  Milky  Way  into  a  clustering 
stream  is  an  inevitable  effect  of  the  ravages  of  time;  but  we  are 
now  enabled  to  foresee  the  restorative  process,  under  the  repulsive 
forces  of  Nature,  by  which  new  nebulae,  clusters  and  sidereal  sys- 
tems of  high  order  eventually  will  develop  in  the  present  depopu- 
lated regions  of  starless  space. 

49.  If  there  be  an  incessant  expulsion  of  dust  from  the  stars 
to  form  nebulae,  with  the  condensation  of  the  nebulae  into  stars 
and  stellar  systems,  while  the  gathering  of  stars  drawn  together 
by  a  clustering  power  operating  over  millions  of  ages  gives  at 
length  a  globular  mass  of  thousands  of  stars  accumulating  to  a 
perfect  blaze  of  starlight  in  the  center,  but  surrounded  externally 
by  a  desert  of  starless  space  resulting  from  the  ravages  of  time, 
certainly  the  building  of  these  magnificient  sidereal  systems  may 
well  engage  the  attention  of  the  natural  philosopher. 

50.  As  remarked  by  Newton  in  his  second  letter  to  Bentley 
(Horsely's  edition  of  Newton's  Opera  Omnia,  Vol.  IV,  p.  436),  it 
was  pointed  out  by  Blondel  in  his  work  on  Bombs,  (Paris,  1685, 
p.  199)  that  Plato  affirms  that  the  motions  of  the  planets  is  such 
as  if  they  had  all  been  created  by  the  Deity  in  some  region  very 
remote  from  our  system,  and  let  fall  from  thence  towards  the  sun, 
and  so  soon  as  they  arrived  at  their  several  orbs,  their  motion  of 
falling  turned  aside  into  a  transverse  one. 

51.  Newton  adds  that  "this  is  true,  supposing  the  gravi- 
tating power  of  the  sun  was  double,  at  that  moment  of  time  in 
which  they  arrive  at  their  several  orbs;  but  then  the  Divine  power 


236        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

is  here  required  in  a  double  respect,  namely,  to  turn  the  descending 
motions  of  the  falling  planets  to  a  side  motion,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  double  the  attractive  power  of  the  sun.  So  then  gravity 
may  put  the  planets  into  motion,  but  without  the  Divine  power 
it  could  never  put  them  into  such  a  circulating  motion,  as  they 
have  about  the  sun;  and  therefore  for  this,  as  well  as  other  reasons, 
I  am  compelled  to  ascribe  the  frame  of  this  system  to  an  intelligent 
agent." 

52.  This  great  historical  problem  of  how  the  planets  acquired 
their  transverse  motions  has  now  been  solved  in  a  satisfactory 
manner;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  Plato's  idea  of  formation  in 
the  distance,  with  subsequent  approach  to  the  sun,  is  verified  by 
the  most  rigorous  researches  of  modern  science. 

53.  The  transverse  motion  is  now  shown  to  have  developed 
from  the  unsymmetrical  figure  of  our  primordial  nebula,  which 
finally  gave  the  system  a  whirling  motion  about  an  axis,  with  most 
of  the  bodies  near  the  plane  of  maximum  areas,  and  thus  the  orbits 
are  but  little  inclined  to  the  Invariable  Plane  discovered  by  Laplace 
in  1784. 

54.  The  turning  of  the  planets  from  descending  motions  in 
very  elongated  orbits,  to  orbits  of  small  eccentricity,  thus  giving 
the  lateral  motions  discussed  by  Newton,  is  now  satisfactorily 
explained  by  the  secular  action  of  the  nebular  resisting  medium; 
but  while  the  mystery  is  solved,  we  must  admire  the  perfection  of 
this  wonderful  process  established  by  the  Deity  for  rendering  the 
planets  habitable  for  living  beings  requiring  uniform  conditions 
of  temperature.    And  this  process  exists  for  developing  habitable 
planets  wherever  a  star  twinkles. 

55.  Having  established  how  the  planets  were  formed  about 
our  sun,  we  are  enabled  to  affirm  that  as  all  stars  developed  from 
nebulae,  they  also  have   developed   about  them  corresponding 
planetary  systems,  or  become  spectroscopic  or  visual  binary  stars. 
At  least  one-fifth  of  the  stars  are  spectroscopically  double  and  the 
other  four-fifths  have  attendant  bodies  too  minute  to  be  detected 
by  our  most  delicate  instruments.    All  the  stars  therefore  are 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  237 

centers  of  systems  of  some  kind,  but  most  of  them  forever  beyond 
our  powers  of  observation. 

56.  The  orbits  of  these  remote  planets  in  other  systems  are 
rounded  up  like  our  own,  by  motion  in  the  nebular  resisting  me- 
dium; and  their  moons  are  covered  by  craters  due  to  collision,  as 
in  the  case  of  our  moon.    These  planets  thus  acquire  small  obli- 
quities, and  axial  rotation  giving  day  and  night,  as  in  the  solar 
system. 

57.  As  these  distant  planets  have  the  same  chemical  ele- 
ments which  we  are  familiar  with,  and  in  many  cases  are  habitable, 
it  follows  that  they  also  are  inhabited  by  intelligent  beings;  other- 
wise it  is  necessary  to  hold  that  life  upon  the  planet  Earth  in  the 
solar  system  is  contrary  to  the  general  order  of  the  universe  and 
therefore  an  accident  and  a  mistake,  existing  in  violation  of  the 
Laws  of  Nature.    No  philosopher  could  admit  this  latter  possi- 
bility, for  it  leads  to  a  reductio  ad  absurdum  as  convincing  as  any 
in  geometry. 

58.  As  the  Earth  always  rotated  about  as  at  present,  and 
never  had  a  day  of  a  few  hours  length,  as  formerly  concluded  by 
Kelvin  and  Darwin,  it  follows  also  that  her  twin  sister  planet  Venus 
rotates  about  as  the  earth  does,  and  has  a  day  of  about  the  same 
length,  or  slightly  shorter,  23h  21m.    With  its  abundance  of  air 
and  water  vapor,  as  shown  by  the  brilliant  surface  of  clouds,  the 
planet  Venus   therefore  is   habitable,   and   inhabited   like  the 
Earth. 

59.  When  we  behold  the  Milky  Way  in  the  region  of  Sagit- 
tarius, the  naked  eye  easily  perceives  the  star-clouds  into  which 
the  millions  of  stars  have  become  collected  by  the  clustering  power 
of  universal  gravitation.    This  is  a  convenient  witness  to  the 
effects  produced  by  the  ravages  of  time  under  the  operation  of  the 
central  powers  observed  by  Herschel  to  be  gradually  breaking  up 
the  Milky  Way. 

60.  And  just  as  the  majestic  arch  of  the  Milky  Way  visibly 
exhibits  the  effects  of  the  clustering  power  of  universal  gravita- 
tion, so  also  the  reversal  of  these  centripetal  tendencies  leads  at 


238         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

once  to  a  more  primordial  state  of  wide  diffusion  under  repulsive 
forces  in  nature,  which  made  possible  the  observed  clustering 
stream  of  the  Galaxy.  The  operation  of  repulsive  forces  is  thus 
as  evident  to  the  mind  as  the  clustering  which  is  visibly  breaking 
up  the  Milky  Way. 

61.  With  the  flight  of  immeasurable  ages  the  clustering  now 
observed  may  become  more  pronounced,  but  the  restorative  pro- 
cess, under  repulsive  forces,  for  developing  sidereal  systems  in  the 
vacant  regions  of  starless  space  is  also  at  work. 

62.  The  depths  of  the  Milky  May  into  which  our  telescopes 
can  penetrate  is  shown  to  be  several  million  light-years,  as  held 
byHerschel  in  1802,  and  thus  about  a  thousand  times  greater  than 
astronomers  have  recently  believed. 

63.  The  Milky  Way  being  of  very  great  profundity,  and  the 
clusters  being  aggregations  of  stars  in  this  starry  stratum,  they 
are  by  the  effects  of  perspective  made  to  appear  projected  along 
the  path  of  the  Galaxy. 

64.  The  same  process  of  capture  which  is  gathering  the  stars 
into  clusters  operates  on  a  larger  scale  in  the  star-clouds  of  the 
Milky  Way,  and  thus  the  process  is  everywhere  uniform  from  the 
very  lowest  to  the  very  highest  order  of  sidereal  systems. 

65.  If  there  is  any  truth  in  Herschel's  theory  that  a  cluster- 
ing power  has  moulded  the  figures  and  internal  arrangement  of 
density  in  clusters  and  nebulae  —  of  which  we  are  assured  by 
the  central  accumulations  noticed  in  many  thousands  of  these 
objects  throughout  the  sidereal  universe  —  then  it  necessarily 
follows  that  the  Capture  Theory  corresponds  to  the  true  Law  of 
Nature. 

66.  For  it  is  essentially  a  theory  of  the  Clustering  Power  of 
universal  gravitation,  supplemented  by  the  theory  of  repulsive 
forces,  and  of  the  modifications  produced  by  such  agencies  as  the 
resisting  medium. 

67.  It  should  be  remarked  that  in  the  time  of  Herschel,  New- 
tonian gravitation  was  not  yet  established  as  the  central  force 
governing  the  motions  of  double  and  multiple  stars;  but  subse- 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  239 

quent  investigations,  especially  those  included  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  writer's  Researches,  have  established  this  fact  beyond  doubt, 
and  thus  enabled  us  to  affirm,  without  further  observations,  that 
gravitation  holds  also  for  the  nebulae,  clusters  and  star-clouds  of 
the  Galaxy. 

68.  It  is  upon  the  basis  of  the  Great  Cyclic  Law  of  Nature 
involving  the  mutual  interaction  of  attractive  and  repulsive  forces 
operating  throughout  the  sidereal  universe  and  illustrated  by  the 
grandest  of  celestial  phenomena,  that  Cosmogony  now  takes  rank 
as  a  New  Science  of  the  Stars. 

69.  It  is  justly  remarked  that  an  astronomer  of  the  philo- 
sophic intuition  of  Herschel,  but  with  modern  mathematical 
insight  into  the  exhaustion  of  the  potential  energy  of  a  cloud  of 
stars,  under  the  central  power  of  gravitation,  by  merely  directing 
his  vision  along  the  clustering  stream  of  the  Galaxy,  over  the  region 
of  the  bifurcation,  from  the  Southern  Cross  through  Centaurus, 
Sagittarius  and  Cygnus  to  Cepheus,  would  be  able  to  deduce  not 
only  the  breaking  up  of  the  Milky  Way,  but  also  the  origin  of  our 
planets  at  a  great  distance  from  the  sun,  and  thus  the  principal 
laws  of  the  formation  of  the  solar  and  sidereal  system.    As  an 
obvious  deduction  from  the  accumulative  effects  of  universal 
gravitation  visible  in  the  sky,  surely  this  is  no  small  gain.    For 
it  places  the  new  science  of  Cosmogony  easily  within  the  grasp  of 
the  mathematician  and  the  natural  philosopher,  who  contemplate 
the  starry  heavens  with  no  instruments  or  applicances  beyond  the 
simple  naked  eye. 

70.  The  fundamental  cosmogonic  law  of  the  firmament,  that 
all  bodies  are  formed  in  the  distance  and  subsequently  drawn  to 
the  centers  about  which  they  now  revolve,  is  confirmed  by  the 
Herschel-See  theory  of  the  depth  of  the  Galaxy  and  of  the  Cluster- 
ing Power  found  to  be  gathering  the  stars  into  groups,  swarms 
and  immense  star-clouds,  and  thus  breaking  up  the  Milky  Way. 
Accordingly  it  is  now  obvious  why  this  stupendous  arch  of  light 
appears  to  span  the  heavens  as  a  clustering  stream  exhibiting  to  the 
naked  eye  the  most  unmistakable  effects  of  the  ravages  of  time. 


240         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

71.  Among  all  the  sublime  discoveries  which  have  crowned 
the  labors  of  philosophers  throughout  the  centuries,  wonders  are 
many,  but  none  is  more  wonderful  than  this  amazing  triumph  of 
human  ingenuity,  by  which  mysteries  are  fathomed  that  the  entire 
life  of  our  race  would  scarcely  enable  us  to  deduce  from  changes 
such  as  might  be  observed  in  the  star-clouds  of  the  Milky  Way; 
and  yet  from  established  laws  of  Nature  may  be  concluded  with 
even  more   certainty  than  if  they  rested  on  the  evidence  of 
actual  observations  authentically  transmitted  from  the  remotest 
ages. 

72.  The  foremost  geometers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in- 
cluding Lagrange,  Laplace  and  Poisson,  were  greatly  occupied 
with  the  problem  of  the  stability  of  the  solar  system;  and  in  his 
historical  eulogy  on  Laplace  the  penetrating  Fourier  justly  remarks 
that  the  researches  of  geometers  prove  that  the  law  of  gravitation 
itself  operates  as  a  preservative  power,  and  renders  all  disorder 
impossible,  so  that  no  object  is  more  worthy  of  the  meditation  of 
philosophers  than  the  problem  of  the  stability  of  these  great  celes- 
tial phenomena. 

73.  But  if  the  question  of  the  stability  of  our  single  planetary 
system  may  so  largely  absorb  the  talents  of  the  most  illustrious  geom- 
eters of  the  age  of  Herschel,  how  much  more  justly  may  the  problem 
of  the  stability  of  clusters,  involving  many  thousands  of  such  systems, 
claim  the  attention  of  the  modern  geometer,  who  has  witnessed  the  per- 
fect unfolding  of  the  grand  phenomena  first  discovered  by  that  unri- 
valed explorer  of  the  heavens? 

74.  The  grandeur  of  the  study  of  the  origin  of  the  greatest 
of  sidereal  systems  is  worthy  of  the  philosophic  penetration  of  a 
Herschel!    The  solution  of  the  dynamical  problem  presented  sur- 
passes the  powers  of  the  most  titanic  geometers,  and  would  demand 
the  inventive  genius  of  a  Newton  or  an  Archimedes! 

75.  Yet  notwithstanding  the  transcendent  character  of  the 
problem,  and  the  hopelessness  of  a  rigorous  solution  in  our  time, 
even  an  imperfect  outline  of  Nature's  laws  may  aid  the  thoughtful 
astronomer,  in  penetrating  the  underlying  workings  of  the  sidereal 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  241 

universe,  and  thus  enable  him  to  perceive  the  great  end  subserved 
by  the  development  of  the  Cosmos.  If  so,  he  may  well  rejoice, 
and  exclaim  with  Ptolemy: 

"Though  but  the  being  of  a  day, 
When  I  the  planet-paths  survey, 

My  feet  the  dust  despise; 
Up  to  the  throne  of  God  I  mount 
And  quaff  from  an  immortal  fount 
The  nectar  of  the  skies." 

(Translated  by  Professor  W.  B.  SMITH.) 

Starlight  on  Loutre, 

Montgomery  City,  Missouri,  December  10,  1912. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  REVOLUTIONARY  CHARACTER  OF  THE  RECENT  DISCOVERIES  IN 
COSMOGONY  AND  THEIR  TRIUMPHANT  VERIFICATION  BY  EMI- 
NENT ASTRONOMERS. 


what  has  now  been  shown  it  is  apparent  that  See's 
work  in  Astronomy  and  Cosmogony  can  only  be  described 
as  revolutionary.  That  is  to  say,  he  has  torn  down  mental 
processes  and  structures  long  used  by  men  of  science  and  grown 
venerable  and  hoary  with  age.  Yet  not  content  with  being  a  mere 
iconoclast,  he  has  substituted  new  structures  for  the  rubbish  and 
cobwebs  which  have  been  swept  away.  Evidently  such  a  revolu- 
tionary movement  is  of  great  importance  to  the  scientific  world. 

When  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  of  Laplace  was  proposed  in 
1796,  it  did  not  pretend  to  be  more  than  a  plausible  hypothesis. 
Laplace  considered  it  highly  probable,  but  not  demonstrated.  It 
came  into  use  little  by  little,  and  has  now  found  a  place  in  every 
important  work  on  Astronomy,  most  books  on  Geology,  and  nearly 
all  treatises  on  Philosophy.  It  has  therefore  become  deeply 
intrenched,  from  mere  usage,  and  in  default  of  a  better  explana- 
tion. But  it  is  now  recognized  that  See's  discoveries  have  shaken 
it  to  the  very  foundations,  and  all  who  keep  abreast  of  progress 
realize  that  Laplace's  hypothesis  involving  the  detachment  of 
planets  and  satellites  is  permanently  overthrown.  The  use  of 
that  antiquated  and  abandoned  theory  hereafter  will  be  nothing 
less  than  a  sign  of  fossilization  and  of  mental  incapacity. 

See's  proof  that  the  planets  have  been  formed  in  the  distance 
and  have  since  neared  the  sun,  as  their  orbits  were  reduced  in  size 
by  growth  of  the  central  mass  and  rounded  up  into  almost  perfect 
circles  by  the  action  of  a  resisting  medium,  is  of  a  mathematical 
character,  and  admits  of  no  dispute.  The  theory  that  the  planets 
have  been  added  on  to  the  sun  from  without  and  the  satellites 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  243 

likewise  added  on  to  the  planets  therefore  is  generally  accepted 
by  progressive  investigators  throughout  the  scientific  world.  For 
example,  in  his  Lectures  on  Cosmogony  at  the  University  of  Paris, 
1911,  the  late  celebrated  mathematician  Poincare  devotes  two 
chapters  to  See's  work,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Lectures  were 
nearly  finished  when  the  Researches,  Vol.  II,  reached  Paris,  and 
thus  Poincare  could  not  treat  adequately  of  See's  discoveries.  In 
the  same  way  the  interest  in  this  great  advance  has  been  profound 
in  every  civilized  country. 

At  the  Monist  Congress  in  Hamburg,  September,  1911,  the 
celebrated  Professor  Suante  Arrhenius  of  Stockholm  delivered 
the  principal  address.  Naturally  it  related  to  progress  in  the 
physical  sciences,  and  was  largely  about  the  discoveries  of  Pro- 
fessor See,  as  the  most  significant  recent  development  in  physical 
philosophy. 

In  October,  1911,  these  discoveries  were  the  subject  of  lively 
discussion  at  the  meetings  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Professor  Charles  Andre,  late  director  of  the  observatory  of  Lyons, 
tried  to  reply  to  See's  argument  overthrowing  the  Cosmogony  of 
Laplace.  It  seemed  to  be  a  matter  of  national  pride  for  the 
French.  They  were  shocked  at  the  sacrilegious  thought  of  giving 
up  the  venerable  views  of  the  great  French  geometer  of  the  days 
of  Napoleon,  which  they  had  accepted  from  childhood.  Andre's 
argument,  however,  is  no  match  for  that  of  See,  and  the  latter  has 
therefore  paid  no  attention  to  the  late  director  of  the  observatory 
of  Lyons. 

The  late  M.  Poincare,  the  greatest  and  most  sagacious  of  the 
French  men  of  science,  was  too  wise  and  just  to  attempt  to  defend 
the  indefensible;  and  promptly  abandoned  Laplace's  theory  and 
adopted  the  new  theory  of  the  American  astronomer.  Naturally 
France  will  recognize  the  views  of  Poincare  and  See  as  correct,  and 
the  only  ones  entitled  to  serious  consideration  in  the  future. 

In  England  a  curious  movement  occurred,  but  there,  too,  most 
men  of  science  were  disinclined  to  contest  the  ground  with  the 
American  astronomer.  It  happened  that  Professor  See's  work 


244         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

overthrew  the  thirty-years-old  theory  of  Lord  Kelvin  and  Sir 
George  Darwin  that  the  moon  was  thrown  off  from  the  earth,  and 
thus  had  a  terrestrial  origin.  There  are  no  greater  names  in 
British  Science  than  those  of  Kelvin  and  Darwin;  and  naturally 
British  pride  was  somwehat  hurt  by  this  outcome.  The  modern 
successors  of  Newton  at  Cambridge  were  accustomed  to  think 
that  in  Science  their  authority  was  supreme,  and  found  it  a  little 
hard  to  realize  that  they  would  have  to  learn  from  an  American. 

It  is  a  matter  of  deep  regret  to  record  the  somewhat  unex- 
pected death  of  Sir  George  Darwin,  Dec.  7,  1912,  in  the  68th  year 
of  his  age. 

In  announcing  the  death  of  this  eminent  mathematician  to 
the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  Dec.  13,  1912,  Professor  F.  W. 
Dyson,  Astronomer  Royal  for  Great  Britain,  remarked  that  it  had 
been  a  cherished  thought  with  Sir  George  Darwin  that  as  his 
father,  the  celebrated  Charles  Darwin,  had  outlined  the  laws  of 
terrestrial  evolution,  so  too,  he  in  turn  had  added  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  celestial  evolution.  Darwin's  last  paper  to  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society,  read  in  June,  1912,  was  submitted  with  the 
remark  by  Sir  George  himself  that  he  had  labored  for  the  develop- 
ment of  Cosmogony. 

There  can  be  no  difference  of  opinion  on  this  point.  Pro- 
fessor See  recognized  Darwin  as  master  in  all  his  earlier  work,  and 
departed  from  his  teachings  in  later  years  only  when  he  found  the 
Darwinian  premises  insecure. 

Perhaps  the  occasion  of  a  memorial  resolution,  such  as  was 
passed  at  the  meeting  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  Dec.  13, 
1912,  would  not  have  permitted  anything  to  be  said  in  behalf  of 
another  still  living;  but  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  Astrono- 
mer Royal  might  with  strict  regard  for  truth  better  have  said 
that  one  of  Sir  George  Darwin's  greatest  services  to  Science  had 
consisted  in  his  early  support  of  Professor  See,  who  finally  estab- 
lished correct  premises  and  laid  the  Foundations  of  Cosmogony, 
by  reviving  and  greatly  extending  the  theories  of  Sir  William 
Herschel. 


SIR  GEORGE  H.  DARWIN,  F.R.S.  (1845-1912).  AT  THE  AGE  OF  47. 

One  of  the  most  eminent  of  recent  British  mathematicians,  and  the  author 
of  many  profound  investigations  in  Dynamical  Astronomy  and  on  the  Figures 
of  Equilibrium  of  Rotating  Masses  of  Fluid.  Unfortunately  the  premises  under- 
lying his  work  in  Cosmogony  were  insecure,  and  the  results  are  therefore  largely 
inapplicable  to  the  actual  universe.  One  of  Professor  See's  earliest  British  friends. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  245 

Competent  men  of  science  are  now  agreed  on  the  truth  of 
Herschel's  theory  that  throughout  the  sidereal  universe  New- 
tonian gravitation  acts  as  a  clustering  power;  and  on  the  truth 
of  See's  supplementary  but  equally  important  theory  of  the  resto- 
rative process  going  on  under  repulsive  forces  in  nature.  These 
two  fundamental  conceptions  form  the  Foundations  of  Cosmogony; 
but  the  subject  could  hardly  be  called  a  Science  till  it  had  a  mathe- 
matical basis  like  that  outlined  in  See's  Researches  on  the  Evolution 
of  the  Stellar  Systems,  Vol.  II,  1910,  and  in  the  Dynamical  Theory 
of  the  Globular  Clusters,  1912. 

Darwin's  last  public  utterance,  in  his  address  as  president  of 
the  International  Congress  of  Mathematicians  at  Cambridge, 
August  22,  1912,  contained  a  distinct  note  of  despair  in  regard  to 
the  applications  of  mathematics  to  the  physical  universe.  He 
cited  the  correctness  of  the  mathematics  in  Lord  Kelvin's  researches 
on  the  secular  cooling  of  the  earth,  but  added  that  his  reasoning 
was  invalidated  by  conditions  not  taken  account  of,  such  as  the 
effects  of  radio-activity.  In  other  words,  Lord  Kelvin  reasoned 
from  false  or  unsatisfactory  premises. 

Sir  George  Darwin  obviously  could  not  be  expected  to  allude 
to  the  failure  of  much  of  his  own  work  in  Cosmogony,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  doubt  that  it  was  the  similar  flaws  found  by  See  in  the 
premises  underlying  these  investigations  that  so  deeply  impressed 
on  Darwin's  mind  the  difficulty  of  applying  mathematics  to  the 
physical  universe.  His  last  public  expression  is  thus  a  tacit  ad- 
mission of  the  truth  of  See's  discoveries,  and  a  concession  to  his 
triumphant  overthrow  of  the  old  ideas  in  Cosmogony.  For  on 
the  appearance  of  the  Researches,  Vol.  II,  1910,  Darwin  had  written 
Professor  See  to  the  effect  that  it  would  not  be  right  to  leave  the 
impression  that  he  had  "as  yet  adopted  the  theory,"  but  that  he 
would  study  it  attentively,  and  no  doubt  he  did  so.  Moreover, 
Darwin  had  received  the  "Determination  of  the  Depth  of  the 
Milky  Way"  in  May,  and  the  "Dynamical  Theory  of  the  Globular 
Clusters"  early  in  July,  1912;  and  he  was  thus  aware  of  the  com- 
plete verification  of  the  results  first  outlined  in  See's  Researches, 
Volume  II,  1910. 


246         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

The  following  extracts  from  a  circular  issued  by  the  Thos.  P. 
Nichols  &  Son  Co.,  of  Lynn,  Mass.,  publishers  of  See's  famous 
Researches,  will  more  fully  explain  some  points  relating  to  the 
triumph  of  the  Capture  Theory: 

1.  Professor  W.  S.  Adams,  Solar  Observatory,  Mt.  Wilson, 
California:     "A  beautiful  book  which  will  prove  of  the  greatest 
service  in  connection  with  my  future  work." 

2.  Professor  Suante  Arrhenius,  Stockholm:    "A  great  and 
splendid  treatise  to  which  I  shall  give  months  of  study." 

3.  Professor  Benjamin  Baillaud,  Director  of  the  Paris  Ob- 
servatory:   "A  magnificent  and  important  work." 

4.  Professor  E.  E.  Barnard,  of  Yerkes  Observatory:     "A 
great  work  of  deep  interest,  with  every  subject  splendidly  treated." 

5.  Professor  A.  Belopolski,  of  Poulkowa  Observatory:  "This 
book  contains  much  food  for  human  thought." 

6.  Professor  K.  Bohlin,  Director  of  Observatory,  Stockholm: 
"A  very  beautiful  and  splendid  work." 

7.  Professor  E.  W.  Brown,  Yale  University:     "The  beauti- 
ful printing  and  magnificent  illustrations  are  a  very  unusual  feat- 
ure, and  make  the  book  a  welcome  addition  to  any  library,  quite 
apart  from  the  contents." 

8.  Professor  Chas.  Burkhalter,  Chabot  Observatory,  Oak- 
land, California:    "It  is  a  superb  volume,  a  monumental  work 
and  its  effect  on  astronomy  will  be  profound." 

9.  Professor  S.  W.  Burnham,  Yerkes  Observatory:     "It  is 
a  great  work  in  every  sense,  and  will  constitute  a  most  enduring 
monument." 

10.  Professor  H.  S.  Carslaw,  University  of  Sydney:     "It  is 
a  most  important  work." 

11.  Professor  R.  T.   Crawford,  University  of  California  : 
"Admirably  prepared  and  full  of  most  interesting  and  important 
matter." 

12.  Professor  Sir  G.  H.  Darwin,  University  of  Cambridge, 
England:    "In  passing  final  proof  of  'Tides'  for  Encyclopedia 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.   J.   SEE  247 

Britannica  yesterday,  I  gave  a  reference  to  this  work  by  erasing 
several  sentences  in  existing  type,  but  was  unable  to  enter  into  any 
discussion." 

13.  Professor  H.  Delandres,  Director  of  Observatory,  Meu- 
don,  France:    "A  work  of  vast  extent  and  profound  interest." 

14.  Professor  F.  W.  Dyson,  Astronomer  Royal  for   Great 
Britain:    "A  magnificent  work,  which  will  be  greatly  appreciated 
by  astronomers." 

15.  Sir  David  Gill,  President  Royal  Astronomical  Society: 
"A  wonderful  and  beautiful  book  of  Researches,  and  I  look  for- 
ward with  great  interest  to  the  study  of  its  pages." 

16.  Professor  R.  T.  A.  Innes,  Director  of  Transvaal  Observ- 
atory:   "It  is  indeed  a  remarkable  production  for  one  man." 

17.  Dr.  Otto  Klotz,  Dominion  Observatory,  Ottawa,  Canada : 
"It  will  give  food  for  thought  for  many  a  moon." 

18.  Professor  H.  Ludendorff,   Astrophysical  Observatory, 
Potsdam:    "It  will  mark  an  epoch  in  Cosmogony." 

19.  Professor  H.  Poincare,  University  of  Paris:  "I  have 
made  use  of  your  book  (Researches,  Vol.  II)  in  my  course  this  year, 
although  I  had  not  expected  to  do  so,  since  I  did  not  receive  the 
volume  till  near  the  close  of  the  last  lesson:    I  then  insisted,  with 
profit,  on  the  capture  of  planets  by  a  resisting  medium." 

20.  Professor  C.  L.  Poor,  Columbia  University,  New  York: 
"A  very  valuable  work  in  which  the  problems  are  ably  presented." 

21.  Professor   H.   von  Seeliger,   Director  of  Observatory, 
Munich:    "A  work  of  vast  extent  and  deep  interest." 

22.  Professor  W.  B.  Smith,  Tulane  University:  "A  majestic, 
magnificent  volume,  a  monument  more  lasting  than  brass,  more 
lofty  than  the  kingly  form  of  pyramids." 

23.  Professor  Elis  Stromgren,  Director  of  Observatory,  Cop- 
enhagen:   "  It  revolutionizes  our  thought  in  many  lines." 

24.  Dr.  Alexander  Roberts,  Lovedale,  South  Africa:    "A 
monumental  work  which  will  be  the  standard  for  all  issues  in 
astronomy  for  many  and  many  a  year." 

25.  Professor  Max  Wolf,  Director  of  Observatory,  Heidel- 
berg;   "A  splendid  work  of  deepest  interest." 


248        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

26.  Professor  A.  Wolfer,  Director  of  Observatory,  Zurich, 
Switzerland:  "A  beautiful  work  treating  of  discoveries  of  tran- 
scendent importance." 

Considering  the  extremely  revolutionary  character  of  See's 
discoveries,  it  must  be  held  that  they  have  had  a  very  favorable 
reception  from  the  scientific  world.  Those  whose  work  is  over- 
thrown by  the  new  advance  naturally  have  been  unable  to  take  a 
calm  and  disinterested  view  of  recent  progress.  But  as  more  time 
has  elapsed  it  is  noticed  that  acceptance  of  the  results  is  general, 
and  that  acquiescence  in  See's  conclusions  becomes  more  and  more 
universal. 

It  is  a  deplorable  fact  that  as  the  newer  processes  of  Astron- 
omy have  developed,  such  as  the  various  branches  of  spectro- 
scopic  and  photographic  research,  the  number  of  astronomers  who 
can  understand  difficult  mathematical  arguments  like  those  built 
up  by  See,  has  decreased  rather  than  increased.  This  is  the  un- 
fortunate outcome  of  the  narrow  specialization  of  our  age.  It 
makes  solid  progress  in  the  deeper  problems  of  Astronomy  very 
slow,  and  dependent  on  the  few  rather  than  on  the  many.  Yet 
the  final  results,  as  given  in  a  work  such  as  the  Researches,  may  be 
followed  by  any  fairly  well  trained  student  at  college,  who  has  a 
clear  grasp  of  the  elements  of  mathematics.  The  need  of  such  a 
comprehensive  work  was  very  great.  Prior  to  its  appearance  it 
looked  as  if  progress  on  a  large  scale  had  been  disintegrated  by 
specialization,  and  that  the  threads  of  the  argument  could  never 
again  be  woven  into  a  substantial  and  durable  fabric.  But  for 
the  unusual  grasp  of  See's  mind  it  is  doubtful  if  it  could  have  been 
done;  for  no  one  else  had  even  made  a  beginning  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  New  Science  of  Cosmogony. 

If  we  look  back  at  the  great  revolutions  of  thought  in  the  past, 
we  find  that  most  of  them  involved  severe  struggles,  which  ex- 
tended over  considerable  periods  of  time.  This  was  true,  for 
example,  of  the  heliocentric  theory  of  the  solar  system  which  was 
published  by  Copernicus  in  1543,  but  not  generally  accepted  till 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  249 

after  Galileo's  invention  of  the  telescope  in  1610.  It  was  much 
the  same  way  with  the  discoveries  of  the  laws  of  planetary  motion 
by  Kepler  (1619).  They  were  not  fully  adopted  and  universally 
recognized  till  the  age  of  Newton  (1686) .  And  in  the  case  of  New- 
ton himself,  the  law  of  gravitation  was  not  universally  adopted 
till  the  next  generation,  when  Clairault  and  Euler  greatly  extended 
the  theory.  So  also  for  physical  discoveries,  like  that  made  by 
Roemer  of  the  velocity  of  light  (1675),  which  was  at  once  accepted 
by  a  few  eminent  men  like  Huyghens  and  Newton,  but  not  gener- 
ally adopted  by  physicists  till  after  Bradley 's  discovery  of  the 
Aberration  of  light  in  1727.  For  long  after  Roemer 's  discovery, 
Fontenelle,  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences, 
went  so  far  as  to  publicly  congratulate  himself  that  he  had  not 
believed  in  so  great  a  heresy  as  the  gradual  propagation  of  light. 

In  our  time  the  progress  of  the  world  is  much  more  rapid  than 
in  former  centuries;  and  consequently  it  is  probable  that  See's 
discoveries  will  find  more  immediate  adoption  than  could  be  ex- 
pected of  similar  theories  in  the  past.  This  is  in  fact  indicated  by 
the  progress  already  made  towards  a  general  adoption  of  these 
discoveries  in  different  countries.  New  theories,  however,  not 
only  have  to  triumph  over  the  old,  by  virtue  of  inherent  superi- 
ority, but  also  have  to  displace  them  from  current  thought,  by  the 
gradual  teaching  of  the  correct  principles,  before  the  new  discov- 
eries can  be  said  to  be  fully  effective.  As  the  modern  world  is 
organized,  this  ought  to  be  possible  within  ten  years,  possibly  in 
less  time.  But  this  clarification  of  the  public  mind  and  its  accept- 
ance of  new  truth  is  always  a  somewhat  gradual  process. 

As  for  the  final  effects  of  progress,  much  improvement  is 
possible  but  not  perfection.  There  are  persons  who  still  believe 
in  the  flat  theory  of  the  earth,  even  at  the  present  time;  just  as 
there  are  some  individuals  of  obscure  mind  who  believe  in  astrol- 
ogy. But  these  aberrations  will  always  exist,  in  spite  of  the 
great  modern  development  of  the  sciences.  As  the  Roman  his- 
torian Tacitus  remarks  of  astrologers :  ' '  It  is  a  class  of  men  which, 
in  our  city,  will  always  be  prohibited  (by  decrees  of  the  senate) 


250         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

and  will  always  exist."  The  wisdom  of  this  penetrating  observa- 
tion is  as  apparent  now  as  it  was  2,000  years  ago.  Yet  when  we 
speak  of  progress,  we  mean  among  those  both  capable  of  learning 
and  willing  to  accept  the  truth.  It  is  for  these  that  the  sciences 
are  developed,  in  order  that  some  beneficial  influence  may  be  ex- 
tended by  the  capable  over  the  less  fortunate  portion  of  mankind. 

It  may  be  thought  by  some  that  discoveries  in  pure  science, 
like  those  made  by  See,  appeal  less  to  the  multitude  than  inventions 
in  the  useful  arts,  or  discoveries  in  medicine  and  surgery.  This 
may  be  largely,  but  it  is  not  wholly,  true;  for  it  was  the  original 
discoveries  in  pure  science  by  Copernicus,  Kepler  and  Newton 
which  made  possible  all  the  later  developments  in  the  useful  arts 
and  in  medicine.  And  here  again  history  will  repeat  itself  in  the 
future.  Pure  truth  is  a  perennial  spring  which  flows  through  all 
generations,  and  as  the  stream  descends  it  nourishes  not  only  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  men  famishing  with  thirst,  but  even  the 
dumb  cattle  in  the  vale  below. 

If  See  has  proved,  for  example,  that  there  are  inhabited 
planets  revolving  about  all  the  fixed  stars,  and  that  life  is  a  general 
phenomenon  of  nature,  as  universal  as  the  stars  in  space,  will  it 
not  give  us  a  better  and  nobler  philosophy  of  life  on  this  earth? 
As  we  behold  the  starry  heavens  on  a  cloudless  night  are  we  not 
inspired  by  his  proof  that  life  exists  wherever  a  star  twinkles?  And 
are  we  not  comforted  by  the  thought  that  we  are  not  alone  on  this 
dark  planet,  but  a  part  of  the  great  order  established  by  the  Deity 
from  the  creation  of  the  world?  Will  not  these  discoveries  give 
us  a  nobler  philosophy,  more  reverent  views  of  our  mission  in  the 
world?  And  if  so,  will  it  not  benefit  even  the  humblest  of  mortals 
who  may  be  unable  to  make  discoveries,  but  can  yet  understand 
them  when  presented  by  others  who  have  caught  this  Divine  Mes- 
sage from  the  Stars?  See  believes  that  his  new  philosophy  will 
be  eminently  useful,  and  it  is  this  hope  of  adding  something  to 
the  nobility  of  our  view  of  life  that  has  so  largely  sustained  and 
inspired  him  in  his  great  labors  extending  over  a  quarter  of  a 
century. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  251 

If  See's  efforts  eventually  accomplish  this  improvement  in 
our  philosophy  and  religious  thought,  it  will  bring  about  a  revolu- 
tion not  only  in  science,  but  also  in  philosophy  and  ethics,  and 
thus  ennoble  and  benefit  the  life  of  the  humblest  citizen.  Surely 
this  improvement  of  mankind  must  be  one  of  the  ultimate  objects 
of  all  discovery.  Professor  See  is  known  to  be  a  man  of  very 
reverent  thoughts,  and  ever  thankful  that  he  has  been  able  to  bring 
this  inspiring  message  to  the  world,  even  at  the  cost  of  so  much 
labor  and  sacrifice. 

As  a  philosopher  of  wide  experience  he  believes  that  a  purely 
materialistic  view  of  the  universe  is  not  and  never  will  be  sufficient 
to  explain  all  known  phenomena.  There  is  a  world  of  mind,  largely 
independent  of  the  material  universe.  In  his  celebrated  Researches 
Vol.  II,  pp.  712-14,  See  has  treated  of  the  problem  of  Life  in  rela- 
tion to  the  order  of  nature.  Those  pages  are  justly  famous  and 
we  quote  them  here  in  full: 

4 '§324.  Life  a  General  Phenomenon  of  Nature,  and  Almost 
as  Universal  in  Its  Distribution  as  Matter  Itself. 

"If  therefore  the  laws  of  nature  are  such  as  to  form  planetary 
systems  of  the  cosmical  dust  expelled  from  the  stars,  through  pre- 
cipitation, condensation  and  falling  together  under  the  attraction 
of  gravitation;  while  on  the  other  hand  the  dust  itself  in  a  finer 
condition  is  originally  expelled  from  the  stars,  by  the  action  of  the 
repulsive  forces  arising  from  high  temperature,  intense  radiation- 
pressure  and  powerful  electric  charges,  it  follows  that  there  is  a 
cyclic  process  by  which  stars  and  systems  arise  from  nebulae, 
while  nebulae  in  turn  are  formed  from  the  stars.  On  this  point 
there  does  not  seem  to  be  the  slightest  doubt;  and  we  may  regard 
this  cyclic  process  as  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  the  laws  of  nature. 
Indeed,  it  seems  to  operate  on  a  stupendous  scale  throughout  the 
sidereal  universe. 

"Since  therefore  the  starry  heavens  are  shown  to  be  filled 
with  many  millions  of  planetary  systems,  and  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  habitable  worlds,  is  it  not  obvious  that  these  worlds  as  a 


252         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

rule  are  also  inhabited*  From  the  uniformity  of  the  laws  of  nature, 
it  would  seem  that  this  must  be  so,  and,  so  far  as  one  may  now  judge, 
this  is  the  most  inspiring  message  yet  delivered  to  mankind  by  mod- 
ern science. 

"Let  us  see  on  what  foundation  this  conclusion  rests:  (1) 
Gravitation  operates  according  to  the  same  laws  in  other  parts 
of  the  sidereal  universe  as  upon  the  earth;  (2)  The  velocity  of 
light,  and  electricity,  and  no  doubt  of  other  physical  agencies,  is 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  space;  (3)  The  chemical  elements  are  the 
same  everywhere,  whether  the  light  involved  comes  from  a  flame 
in  our  laboratory  or  from  one  of  the  stars;  (4)  Mechanical  laws 
are  the  same  in  the  solar  system,  and  among  the  nebulae  and  fixed 
stars,  and  this  makes  possible  the  development  of  cosmical  sys- 
tems of  the  same  general  type  throughout  nature;  (5)  Elec- 
tronic, atomic,  molecular,  gravitational  and  electric  and  other  re- 
pulsive forces  are  the  same  everywhere;  (6)  Life  depends  in  some 
way  for  its  physical  basis  on  electronic,  atomic  and  molecular 
forces,  and  as  these  forces  and  elements  on  which  they  act  are  the 
same  everywhere,  and  the  universe  is  shown  to  be  full  of  habitable 
worlds  made  up  of  the  same  elements  subjected  to  the  same  forces 
as  in  the  case  of  our  own  planets  revolving  around  the  sun,  it  fol- 
lows incontestably  that  life  is  a  general  phenomenon  of  the  physi- 
cal universe,  and  almost  as  universal  as  matter  itself. 

"It  is  true  that  the  psychical  and  spiritual  element  of  life  is 
not  yet  fully  understood,  but  whatever  be  its  character,  it  can 
flourish  elsewhere  in  nature  quite  as  well  as  on  the  planet  called 

*  In  his  thoughtful  address  at  the  dedication  of  the  Flower  Observatory, 
Philadelphia,  Mar.  12,  1897,  Professor  Newcomb  discusses  the  plurality  of  worlds 
as  follows: 

"There  is  one  question  connected  with  these  studies  on  which  I  have  not 
touched,  and  which  is,  nevertheless,  of  transcendent  interest.  What  sort  of  life, 
spiritual  and  intellectual,  exists  in  distant  worlds?  We  cannot  for  a  moment  sup- 
pose that  our  own  little  planet  is  the  only  one  throughout  the  whole  universe  on 
which  may  be  found  the  fruits  of  civilization,  warm  firesides,  friendship,  the  desire 
to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  creation."  Again,  in  the  article  "Stars,"  Encyclo- 
pedia Americana,  he  remarks  that  the  stars  in  clusters  may  have  planets  revolving 
around  them. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  253 

the  Earth  in  the  solar  system.  Our  sun  is  simply  a  fixed  star  of 
very  ordinary  magnitude,  and  the  Milky  Way  includes  hundreds 
of  millions  of  such  centers  of  planetary  systems.  Accordingly, 
in  view  of  the  established  uniformity  of  nature's  processes  through- 
out the  immensity  of  space,  who  can  doubt  that  life  is  a  general 
phenomenon  ordained  by  the  Deity  from  the  creation  of  the  world, 
and  destined  to  develop  wherever  planets  are  forming  and  the 
stars  are  shining?  Whatever  be  the  nature  of  life,  it  has  as  much 
right  to  develop  as  planetary  systems  or  combinations  of  atoms; 
it  is  indeed  the  bloom  of  nature,  the  culmination  of  the  highest 
creative  forces.  To  hold  any  other  views  than  those  here  announced 
would  be  to  violate  the  doctrine  of  uniformity,  which  lies  at  the  basis 
of  natural  philosophy  as  formulated  by  Newton  in  the  Principia  (Lib. 
Ill};  and  moreover  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  life  upon  the  earth  was 
an  accident  and  a  mistake  in  violation  of  the  usual  order  of  Nature,* 
which  is  infinitely  improbable  and,  in  fact,  impossible  for  a  philos- 
opher to  admit. 

"If  therefore  life  is  as  universal  as  the  stars  in  space,  it  is 
evident  that  when  we  behold  the  starry  heavens  and  contemplate 
the  glorious  arch  of  the  Milky  Way  on  a  cloudless  night,  we  receive 
from  distant  suns  and  worlds  ethereal  vibrations  which  tell  us  at 
the  same  time  of  living  beings  throughout  immensity.  Let  us, 
therefore,  quietly  rejoice,  when  we  survey  the  starry  heavens  in 

*  If  life  on  the  earth  exists  by  a  mere  accident  and  in  violation  of  natural  laws, 
is  it  likely  that  it  would  have  shown  such  power  of  propagation  and  of  resistance 
to  adverse  conditions  as  it  is  known  to  have  possessed  throughout  geological  history? 
It  seems  to  have  been  a  veritable  spark  which  simply  could  not  be  extinguished, 
and  must  therefore  have  been  burning  on  and  nourishing,  not  in  violation  of,  but 
in  accordance  with,  natural  laws.  Those  who  believe  that  life  is  an  accident  and 
a  mistake,  a  noxious  development  flourishing  in  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature, 
may  with  consistency  deny  the  existence  of  life  throughout  the  universe.  But 
having  shown  that  habitable  planets  revolve  everywhere  about  the  fixed  stars,  in 
orbits  which  are  nearly  circular,  and  rotate  so  as  to  give  alternation  of  day  and 
night,  as  on  the  earth,  it  seems  to  me  more  philosophical  to  follow  the  example  of 
Sir  William  Huggins,  in  regard  to  the  chemical  elements,  and  declare  that  life 
exists  wherever  there  is  a  sun  to  warm  and  light  its  attendant  planets,  and  there- 
fore wherever  a  star  twinkles  in  the  depths  of  space.  The  other  view,  that  life  is 
an  accident,  leads  to  a  reductio  ad  absurdum  as  conclusive  as  those  employed  in 
geometry. 


254         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

all  their  splendor,  and  remember  this  sublime  message  telling  us 
that  we  are  not  mere  dust  confined  to  this  dark  planet,  but  a  part 
of  the  flower  of  the  visible  creation,  which  blooms  everywhere  with 
the  cosmic  order,  and  is  as  universal  as  the  stars  which  illuminate 
the  depths  of  immensity. 

"  Without  the  sublime  researches  of  Sir  William  Herschel,  we 
should  have  a  very  inadequate  conception  of  the  profundity  to 
which  our  telescopes  can  penterate  into  the  blackness  of  unillum- 
inated  space,  and  thus  could  poorly  interpret  the  message  of  the 
universe.  But  this  great  astronomer  showed  that  the  stars  extend 
principally  in  the  direction  of  the  Milky  Way,  and  light  up  that 
region  so  brilliantly  that  we  can  extend  our  explorations  to  a  dis- 
tance which  it  would  take  the  light  millions  of  years  to  traverse. 
Thus  the  Milky  Way  is  like  a  great  but  somewhat  narrow  corridor 
lighted  up  by  the  stars  to  the  remotest  regions  to  which  our  tele- 
scopes can  penetrate,  with  no  indication  of  an  end  to  the  starry 
stratum.  To  realize  on  good,  substantial  and  indisputable  scienti- 
fic grounds  that  life  accompanies  the  stars  to  the  remotest  depths 
of  space,  and  that  we  can  look  out  upon  such  countless  worlds  from 
our  tiny  abode  near  the  sun,  and  thus  connect  the  feeble  life  of  our 
globe  with  the  universal  life  in  the  endless  order  of  inhabited 
spheres,  is  not  the  least  inspiring  message  in  the  Epic  Poem  of 
Science.  It  is  indeed  a  Message  from  the  Stars.  And  it  seems  to 
me  that  if  astronomy  had  achieved  no  other  result  than  this,  it 
would  more  than  justifly  all  the  labors  which  have  been  bestowed 
upon  it  from  the  earliest  ages. 

"This  Message  from  the  Stars  passeth  not  away,  but  endureth 
unto  all  generations.  As  ageless  as  the  heavens  from  which  it 
comes,  it  will  continue  to  travel  downward  with  the  starlight,* 
and  thus  awaken  new  life  and  hope  in  the  hearts  of  mankind.  For 
it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  this  order  of  mind,  life  and  intelli- 

*  "Were  a  star  quenched  on  high 

For  ages  would  its  light. 
Still  traveling  downward  from  the  sky, 
Shine  on  our  mortal  sight." — Longfellow. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  255 

gence  as  widespread  as  the  stars  in  space,  to  have  been  established 
throughout  Nature  without  design  and  abiding  great  and  good 
purpose;  and  therein  lies  the  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  Deity. 
The  teachings  of  true  science  are  therefore  among  the  most  sacred 
which  have  ever  been  delivered,  and  they  deserve  the  veneration 
which  is  always  due  to  Ultimate  Truth." 

AN  INSPIRATION  FROM  ARISTOTLE,  AND  ITS  MODERN  EXTENSION.* 

In  concluding  this  interesting  subject  it  seems  well  to  quote 
the  following  remarkable  passage  from  Aristotle,  which  is  lost  in 
the  Greek  original,  but  has  been  preserved  to  us  in  Cicero's  book 
on  the  Nature  of  the  Gods: 

"If  there  were  men  whose  habitations  had  been  always  under 
ground,  in  great  and  commodious  houses,  adorned  with  statues 
and  pictures,  furnished  with  everything  which  they  who  are  re- 
puted happy  abound  with;  and  if,  without  stirring  from  thence, 
they  should  be  informed  of  a  certain  divine  power  and  majesty,  and 
after  some  time  the  earth  should  open  and  they  should  quit  their 
dark  abode  to  come  to  us,  where  they  should  immediately  behold 
the  earth,  the  seas,  the  heavens;  should  consider  the  vast  extent 
of  the  clouds  and  force  of  the  winds;  should  see  the  sun  and  observe 
his  grandeur  and  beauty,  and  perceive  that  day  is  occasioned  by 
the  diffusion  of  his  light  through  the  sky;  and  when  night  has 
obscured  the  earth  they  should  contemplate  the  heavens,  bespang- 
led and  adorned  with  stars,  the  surprising  variety  of  the  moon  in 
her  increase  and  wane,  the  rising  and  setting  of  all  the  stars  and 
the  inviolable  regularity  of  their  courses,  —  when,  says  he,  'they 
should  see  these  things,  they  would  undoubtedly  conclude  that 
there  are  gods,  and  that  these  are  their  mighty  works/  ' 

The  fascination  of  this  marvelous  train  of  thought  is  such 
that  we  add  another  based  on  our  knowledge  in  the  twentieth 
century,  which  maybe  said  to  afford  a  sublime  vision  of  the  prog- 
ress of  science  in  the  twenty-two  centuries  since  the  age  of  Aris- 

*  The  substance  of  this  closing  inspiration  is  drawn  by  permission,  from 
Professor  See's  "Popular  Cosmogony"  referred  to  on  page  224. 


256        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

totle.  It  naturally  fills  us  with  wonder  at  the  triumphs  of  the 
human  intellect,  but  the  evidence  that  the  soul  is  divine  and  inde- 
pendent of  what  we  call  time,  so  as  to  be  immortal,  is  not  less 
inspiring: 

If  there  be  men  of  miscroscopic  minuteness  dwelling  on  the 
planet  earth,  as  it  revolves  close  to  the  star  of  the  Milky  Way 
which  is  the  center  of  the  solar  system,  and  while  in  the  narrow 
limits  of  this  so-called  mortal  life  they  are  told  of  the  unspeakable 
glories  of  the  sidereal  heavens  as  made  known  by  the  more  talented 
of  their  race  —  in  the  form  of  natural  laws  that  would  enable  them 
to  think  the  thoughts  of  the  Deity  after  Him,  as  Kepler  said — thus 
giving  us  a  science  of  the  creation  of  the  stars,  revealing  both  the 
wonders  of  the  Deity  as  they  now  appear  in  a  glorious  Galaxy  of 
sidereal  systems  and  nebulae  spread  over  a  space  which  light  itself 
requires  millions  of  years  to  traverse,  and  as  they  will  appear  under 
creative  processes,  which  include  the  effects  of  the  ravages  of  time, 
throughout  the  millions  of  ages  to  come;  and  they  then  learn  also 
that  systems  of  worlds  habitable  and  inhabited  by  living  beings 
revolve  in  the  depths  of  the  firmament  wherever  a  star  twinkles, 
so  that  life  appears  to  be  as  general  a  phenomenon  in  nature  as  the 
very  stars  and  the  elements  of  which  they  are  composed  —  when 
one  of  our  so-called  mortal  race  reflects  on  these  marvelous  things, 
and  finally  realizes  likewise  that  our  thoughts  triumph  over  both 
space  and  time,  so  that,  as  Kant  said,  neither  of  these  appearances 
really  exist,  or  the  soul  exists  anywhere  and  forever,  and  hence  we 
are  now  living  in  the  time  of  Socrates  and  Plato  or  with  Christ  and 
the  Apostles,  or  as  the  poet  Holmes  truly  says: 

"The  souls  that  voyaged  the  azure  depths  before  thee 

Watch  with  thy  tireless  vigils  all  unseen — 
Tycho  and  Kepler  bend  benignant  o'er  thee 
And  with  his  toy-like  tube  the  Florentine — " 

does  he  not  perceive  that  this  whole  arrangement  of  the  universe 
is  beyond  mortals  wonderful,  and  the  soul  divine  and  imperish- 
able, because  it  constantly  imitates  the  Deity  in  penetrating  through 
and  contemplating  the  Creation  over  which  He  hath  presided  since 
the  origin  of  time? 


HONORABLE  CHAMP   CLARK. 

Speaker  of  the  National  House  of  Representatives,  and  for  twenty  years  Member  of 
Congress  from  Professor  See's  home  district  in  Missouri. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

'THIS  MOST  INDEFATIGABLE  AND   INTREPID  OF  EXPLORERS'    'THE 

AMERICAN  HERSCHEL'  AND  'THE  NEWTON  OF  COSMOGONY/ 

IN  CO-OPERATION  WITH  SIR  WILLIAM  HUGGINS  SECURES  THE 
REPUBLICATION  OF  HERSCHEL'S  COLLECTED  SCIENTIFIC  PAPERS, 
THUS  RESTORING  SIR  WILLIAM  HERSCHEL  TO  HIS  RIGHTFUL 
PLACE  IN  MODERN  ASTRONOMY. 


World's  Work  for  December,  1912,  and  January,  1913, 
contains  an  account  of  "Exploring  Other  Worlds"  by  Mr. 
William  Bayard  Hale,  the  well  known  author  and  recent 
biographer  of  Woodrow  Wilson,  now  President  of  the  United 
States.  In  the  first  account  of  these  discoveries  among  the  stars 
Mr.  Hale  places  Professor  See  "among  the  foremost  leaders  in  the 
development  of  the  New  Astronomy,"  and  in  the  second  refers  to 
him  as  "this  most  indefatigable  and  intrepid  of  explorers/' 

At  a  much  earlier  date,  in  a  public  address  delivered  in  the 
West,  the  Honorable  Champ  Clark,  Speaker  of  the  National  House 
of  Representatives,  discussed  the  scientific  discoveries  of  Professor 
See,  as  a  friend  and  citizen  of  his  congressional  district;  and  after 
recalling  the  great  significance  of  these  researches  for  the  advance- 
ment of  Astronomy  in  our  time,  predicted  that  Professor  See  would 
take  rank  with  Sir  William  Herschel  for  the  unrivaled  eminence 
of  his  discoveries  in  the  starry  heavens.  And  quite  recently 
Speaker  Clark  has  said  that  See  is  "The  American  Herschel,  the 
greatest  astronomer  now  living." 

The  suggested  parallel  between  Herschel  and  See  is  much 
more  appropriate  than  might  be  imagined  by  a  superficial  reader 
who  does  not  yet  appreciate  the  significance  of  contemporary  prog- 
ress for  the  future  exploration  of  the  sidereal  universe.  This  is 
already  realized  by  the  people  of  his  own  State,  who  have  known 
him  from  childhood,  and  watched  his  triumphant  progress  for  a 


258         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

quarter  of  a  century.  His  neighbors  know  the  discoveries  he  has 
made  and  they  can  find  no  parallel  to  them  on  the  part  of  anyone 
since  the  memorable  explorations  of  Sir  William  Herschel. 

It  therefore  is  no  wonder  that  on  the  occasion  of  a  public 
address  to  an  immense  audience  in  the  Court  House  at  Montgomery 
City,  Mo.,  in  a  spontaneous  welcome  home,  May  4,  1911,  the 
people  came  from  all  over  the  surrounding  country  and  literally 
overflowed  the  largest  auditorium  in  the  county.  Nor  is  it  sur- 
prising that  after  the  address  (which  was  subsequently  printed  in 
Scientia,  Milan,  Italy,  Jan.  1, 1912),  as  the  people  gathered  around 
him,  some  friend  recalled  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes'  welcome  to  Dr- 
Benjamin  Apthorp  Gould,  on  the  latter's  return  from  South  Amer- 
ica, May  6, 1885,  as  even  more  appropriate  to  the  founder  of  a  new 
science  than  to  the  great  cataloguer  of  the  southern  stars: 

"A  WELCOME  TO  DR.  BENJAMIN  APTHORP  GOULD." 

"Once  more  Orion  and  the  sister  Seven 

Look  on  thee  from  the  skies  that  hailed  thy  birth  — 
How  shall  we  welcome  thee,  whose  home  was  Heaven, 
From  thy  celestial  wanderings  back  to  earth? 

"Science  has  kept  her  midnight  taper  burning 
To  greet  thy  coming  with  its  vestal  flame: 
Friendship  has  murmured,  'When  art  thou  returning?' 
'Not  yet!    Not  yet!'  the  answering  message  came. 

"Thine  was  unstinted  zeal,  unchilled  devotion, 

While  the  blue  realm  had  kingdoms  to  explore  — 
Patience,  like  his  who  ploughed  the  unfurrowed  ocean, 
Till  o'er  its  margin  loomed  San  Salvador. 

"Through  the  long  nights  I  see  thee  ever  waking, 
Thy  footstool,  earth,  thy  roof,  the  hemisphere, 
While  with  thy  griefs  our  weaker  hearts  are  aching, 
Firm  as  thine  equatorial's  rock-based  pier. 

"The  souls  that  voyaged  the  azure  depths  before  thee 

Watch  with  thy  tireless  vigils,  all  unseen  — 
Tycho  and  Kepler  bend  benignant  o'er  thee, 
And  with  his  toy-like  tube  the  Florentine  — 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  259 

"He  at  whose  work  the  orb  that  bore  him  shivered 

To  find  her  central  sovereignty  disowned, 
While  the  wan  lips  of  priest  and  pontiff  quivered, 
Their  jargon  stilled,  their  Baal  disenthroned. 

"Flamsteed  and  Newton  look  with  brows  unclouded, 

Their  strife  forgotten  with  its  faded  scars  - 
(Titans,  who  found  the  world  of  space  too  crowded, 
To  walk  in  peace  among  its  myriad  stars). 

"All  cluster  round  thee  —  seers  of  earliest  ages, 

Persians,  lonians,  Mizraim's  learned  kings, 
From  the  dim  days  of  Shinar's  hoary  sages 
To  his  who  weighed  the  planet's  fluid  rings. 

"And  we,  for  whom  the  northern  heavens  are  lighted, 

For  whom  the  storm  has  passed,  the  sun  has  smiled, 
Our  clouds  all  scattered,  all  our  stars  united, 
We  claim  thee,  clasp  thee,  like  a  long-lost  child. 

"Fresh  from  the  spangled  vault's  o'er-arching  splendor, 

Thy  lonely  pillar,  thy  revolving  dome, 
In  heart-felt  accents,  proud,  rejoicing,  tender, 
We  bid  thee  welcome  to  thine  earthly  home." 

When  the  Kansas  City  Star,  shortly  after  this  visit  home, 
nominated  Professor  See  for  the  hall  of  fame,  it  faithfully  inter- 
preted the  sentiments  and  opinions  of  the  people  of  the  State  of 
Missouri. 

Let  us  now  very  briefly  examine  into  the  suggested  parallel 
between  Herschel  and  See,  and  find  out  how  far  it  is  justified.  Sir 
William  Herschel  was  gifted  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  tireless 
energy  and  boundless  ambition  for  the  exploration  of  the  heavens. 
He  spent  his  whole  life  in  these  profound  researches,  and  loved 
his  work  so  dearly  that  no  effort  was  too  great  for  him  to  make  in 
the  hope  of  extending  our  knowledge  of  the  sidereal  universe.  It 
is  not  necessary  nor  desirable  to  recall  here  the  long  list  of  his 
brilliant  discoveries.  It  is  more  to  the  point  to  say  that  he  was 
most  true  and  just  in  all  the  relations  of  life.  For  after  his  dis- 
coveries proved  to  be  so  revolutionary  that  it  was  appropriately 


260         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

inscribed  on  his  tomb  at  Upton  that  "he  broke  through  the  bar- 
riers of  the  heavens"  (coelorum  perrupit  claustra),  Arago  could 
still  pronounce  upon  him  the  incomparable  eulogy:  "Good  for- 
tune and  glory  never  altered  in  him  the  fund  of  infantine  candour, 
inexhaustible  benevolence,  and  sweetness  of  character,  with  which 
nature  had  endowed  him."  (Biographies  of  Distinguished  Scien- 
tific Men,  by  Francois  Arago,  translated  by  Smyth,  Powell  and 
Grant,  1859.) 

In  all  his  labors  Herschel  showed  true  scientific  independence, 
unfaltering  devotion  to  truth,  and  unfailing  sympathy  with  those 
less  fortunately  situated  in  the  world.  During  his  lifetime  he  had 
helped  his  brothers  Alexander  and  Diedrich,  and  his  sister  Caro- 
line; and  when  the  latter  outlived  him  he  provided  generously, 
by  an  annuity,  for  the  old  age  of  the  one  human  being  who  had 
done  most  to  sustain  him  in  the  labors  of  his  great  career.  Those 
who  have  studied  the  life  of  Herschel  most  intimately  find  him 
the  very  prince  of  philosophers;  amid  many  embarrassments  and 
difficulties  he  never  once  failed  to  reflect  in  his  life  the  very  glory 
of  the  heavens. 

As  See  is  still  living,  and  a  comparatively  young  man,  the 
time  has  not  come  to  make  any  final  estimate  of  his  career,  but 
those  who  know  him  best  recognize  unmistakably  the  same  per- 
sonal and  philosophic  qualities  which  so  eminently  distinguished 
Sir  William  Herschel.  See  is  especially  noted  for  being  indepen- 
dent, and  remaining  untrammeled  in  his  freedom  of  action.*  In 
some  cases  it  is  said  that  offers  of  financial  assistance  have  been 
made  under  conditions  which  might  place  him  under  obligations 
expressed  or  implied,  but  they  have  always  been  courteously  de- 
clined, and  the  work  done  at  his  own  expense  or  left  undone.  With 
George  Washington,  he  believes  in  the  cardinal  principle  of 
"friendly  relations  with  all,  entangling  alliances  with  none;"  and 
practices  in  his  relations  with  other  scientific  men  the  rule  laid 
down  for  us,  a  nation,  by  the  Father  of  his  Country.  Without  this 

*  The  reader  should  compare  the  similar  independent  course  of  Herschel,  as 
described  by  Proctor  in  Chapter  XV  p.  219  above. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  261 

wise  rule  of  conduct  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  a  true  philoso- 
pher cannot  exist;  for  however  advantageous  the  formation  of 
alliances  may  be  in  ordinary  commerce,  the  interests  of  truth  will 
seldom  permit  such  combinations  in  science,  and  never  except 
with  individuals  of  exalted  merit. 

Funds  indeed  may  aid  struggling  genius,  but  they  will  not  pro- 
duce genius;  and  even  the  aid  will  be  in  vain  unless  extended  in 
such  a  way  as  not  to  compromise  the  independence  of  the  investi- 
gator. It  is  well  known  that  as  now  managed  our  most  heavily 
endowed  institutions  have  proved  to  be  almost  a  total  failure. 
Probably  nine-tenths  of  the  vast  sums  expended  ostensibly  for 
science  on  observatories  and  other  similar  institutions  have  been 
utterly  wasted.  Naturally  any  self-respecting  man  of  science  is 
better  off  without  entanglements  with  such  institutions,  but  this 
recognized  state  of  affairs  is  a  grave  reflection  on  the  conditions 
of  scientific  life  in  our  country. 

Those  who  are  connected  with  these  wasteful  and  inefficient 
institutions  are  not  really  eminent  and  great  philosophers,  but 
small  and  narrow  specialists,  quite  devoid  of  real  independence 
and  creative  power;  in  fact  they  have  neither  the  ability  nor  free- 
dom to  attack  the  greater  problems  of  the  age,  and  thus  after  all 
their  labors  come  to  little.* 

It  was  the  ability  to  search  for  Truth,  not  worldly  ends,  which 
so  greatly  distinguished  Newton  and  Herschel.  No  amount  of 
questionable  patronage  would  have  aided  the  genius  of  these  great 
men,  though  a  few  grants  were  allowed  Herschel,  without  con- 
dition, and  thus  aided  him  in  building  his  great  telescopes. 

As  another  point  of  similarity  between  the  careers  of  Her- 

*  Routine  Astronomy  was  also  cultivated  by  the  majority  of  workers  in  the 
time  of  Sir  John  Herschel,  and  the  breadth  of  mind  of  that  eminent  philosopher 
was  appreciated  by  few.  In  1847  Herschel  had  to  be  selected  as  President  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society,  to  save  it  from  dissolution;  but  Captain  Smyth 
records  that  Herschel's  name  was  the  main  thing  desired,  for  in  the  judgment  of 
the  members,  "The  President  must  be  a  man  of  brass  (practical  astronomer) — 
a  micrometer-monger,  a  telescope-twiddler,  a  star-stringer,  a  planet-poker,  and  a 
nebula-nabber.  If  we  give  bail  that  we  won't  allow  him  to  do  anything  if  he 
would  we  shall  be  able  to  have  him,  I  hope." 


262         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

schel  and  See,  it  may  be  noted  that  their  discoveries  have  been 
equally  revolutionary.  Many  persons  could  have  built  great  re- 
flectors before  Herschel,  but  nobody  actually  did  it.  So  also  many 
mathematicians  now  living  could  have  carried  out  the  work  done  by 
See,  if  they  had  been  guided  by  his  sense  for  physical  truth  in  nature; 
but  no  one  really  had  this  deep  intuition.  Herschel's  opportunity 
lay  in  building  telescopes  and  exploring  the  heavens;  See's  oppor- 
tunity, on  the  other  hand,  consisted  in  reducing  to  law  and  order 
the  vast  mass  of  observations  on  clusters,  double  stars  and  nebulae 
accumulated  by  Herschel  and  his  successors.  See  did  not  dupli- 
cate, but  rather  extended  the  unfinished  labors  of  Herschel;  just 
as  Herschel  did  not  duplicate,  but  rather  extended  and  verified 
in  the  heavens  the  theoretical  conclusions  of  Newton. 

In  no  age  can  the  work  of  a  great  scientific  discoverer  be  exactly 
repeated.  It  must  rather  be  extended  along  a  new  line.  Thus 
Kepler's  discoveries  were  observational,  but  Newton's  largely 
mathematical,  while  Herschel's  again  were  chiefly  observational. 
And  when  a  great  mass  of  data  had  been  thus  accumulated  by  the 
exploration  of  the  heavens,  See's  mathematical  work  became  possible 
in  the  effort  to  give  us  a  theory  of  the  development  of  the  clusters, 
double  stars,  nebulae  and  other  types  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  By 
establishing  the  mutual  interaction  of  attractive  and  repulsive 
forces,  with  the  resulting  cyclical  order  of  cosmical  development, 
where  only  confusion  and  chaos  had  reigned  before,  See  thus  gained 
the  highest  rank  of  Creator  of  a  New  Science  —  "The  Newton  of 
Cosmogony."  This  has  been  recognized  by  the  most  eminent 
contemporary  astronomers,  but  more  especially  by  such  sage 
philosophers  as  Huggins,  Schiaparelli  and  Poincare. 

As  is  well  known  Sir  William  Herschel  was  born  in  Hanover 
in  1738,  and  his  family  of  Germanic  origin.  His  earliest  known 
ancestor,  Hans  Herschel,  had  two  brothers.  They  were  Protes- 
tants, and,  to  escape  from  religious  persecution,  fled  from  Moravia 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  settled  near  Dresden.  Here 
two  sons  were  born  to  Hans  Herschel,  the  one  named  Abraham  in 
1651.  One  of  Abraham  Herschel's  sons,  Isaac  Herschel,  born  in 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  263 

1707,  was  the  father  of  Sir  William  Herschel.  After  being  left  an 
orphan  at  the  age  of  eleven,  he  studied  music  in  Berlin  and  Pots- 
dam and  finally  settled  in  Hanover,  whence  the  migration  to  Eng- 
land, and  the  rise  to  fame  of  the  son,  Sir  William  Herschel. 

A  singular  parallel  between  the  ancestry  of  Herschel  and  of 
See  is  remarkable  enough  to  be  worthy  of  record.  It  will  be  re- 
called that  two  brothers,  Adam  See,  and  Michael  Frederick  See, 
were  natives  of  Prussian  Silesia,  which  joins  Moravia,  from  which 
the  Herschel  brothers  had  fled  about  a  century  before.  The  Sees 
too  were  Protestants  and  fled  likewise  to  escape  from  religious 
persecution.  But  instead  of  stopping  in  northern  Germany,  like 
the  Herschels,  they  came  direct  to  America,  with  the  colony  of 
Schwenkfelders,  in  1734,  and  settled  first  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
afterwards  moved  to  Virginia,  and  Missouri,  where  the  great 
astronomer  was  born  and  rose  to  fame  as  the  "American  Herschel." 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  striking  similarity  of  ancestry  in 
these  two  great  men  who  have  so  profoundly  revolutionized  the 
Science  of  Astronomy. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  See  is  a  member  of  many  learned 
societies  throughout  the  world.  The  following  list  is  incomplete, 
but  sufficient  for  our  present  purposes: 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society;  Mitglied  der 
Astronomischen  Gesellschaft;  member  of  the  London  Mathe- 
matical Society;  American  Mathematical  Society;  Deutsche 
Mathematiker  Vereinigung;  Societe  Mathematique  de  France; 
Circolo  Mathematico  di  Palermo;  Calcutta  Mathematical  Society; 
American  Philosophical  Society  held  at  Philadelphia;  Washington 
Academy  of  Sciences;  Philosophical  Society  of  Washington; 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  St.  Louis;  American  Physical  Society; 
Societe  Francaise  de  Physique;  Fellow  of  the  American  and 
British  Associations  for  the  Advancement  of  Science;  member  of 
the  British  Astronomical  Association;  Societe  Astronomique  de 
France;  Astronomical  Society  of  the  Pacific;  California  Academy 
of  Sciences;  Seismological  Society  of  America;  National  Geo- 


264         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

graphical  Society;  Honorary  Member  of  the  Sociedad  Astro- 
nomica  de  Mexico;  etc. 

In  this  connection  the  question  may  properly  be  asked  whether 
the  standard  of  Science  is  higher  in  Europe  than  in  America.  Per- 
haps it  will  be  no  surprise  to  learn  that  some  elderly  gentlemen 
who  live  in  the  past,  and  still  think  as  they  did  a  generation  ago, 
hold  that  it  is;  and  that  the  great  European  learned  societies  are 
the  best  judges  of  contemporary  progress  and  discovery. 

The  opposite  view  is  taken  by  Professor  See,  who  has  shown 
that  America  is  now  first  in  purely  scientific  discovery  as  well  as 
in  inventions.  In  fact  the  rapid  progress  of  the  past  twenty  years 
has  given  America  the  first  place  in  every  line  of  human  activity. 
This  appears  to  be  realized  by  the  younger  workers  in  Science, 
who  keep  pace  with  recent  progress,  but  it  is  not  yet  appreciated 
by  the  American  public. 

A  kindred  problem  to  that  just  considered  relates  to  the  nature 
of  genius.  In  what  does  genius  consist?  And  how  are  discoveries 
made?  These  questions  are  not  easy  to  answer,  and  yet  one  may 
say  immediately  that  discoveries  are  not  made  by  following  popu- 
lar habits  of  thought.  So  far  from  originating  discoveries  the  great 
majority  of  people  require  careful  instruction  before  they  can  grasp 
the  results  reached  by  individuals  of  clearer  intuition.  Besides, 
the  most  incompetent  often  are  in  authority,  and  it  is  difficult  for 
the  people  to  recognize  the  few  grains  of  truth  from  among  the 
mass  of  error  set  before  them  by  blunderers. 

As  Napoleon  once  said:  "France  possesses  clever  practical 
men;  the  only  thing  necessary  is  to  find  them,  and  to  give  them 
the  means  of  reaching  the  proper  station;  such  a  one  is  at  the 
plough,  who  ought  to  be  in  the  council;  and  such  another  is  minis- 
ter, who  ought  to  be  at  the  plough"  (Montholon,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  187). 

After  recalling  the  ingenious  labors  of  the  celebrated  Fourier 
for  discovering  the  laws  of  heat,  Arago  exclaims  in  his  eulogy  of 
that  extraordinary  man: 

"Such  is  the  privilege  of  genius;  it  perceives,  it  seizes  rela- 
tions where  vulgar  eyes  see  only  isolated  facts." 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  265 

Admirably  said!  This  seeing  of  mere  isolated  facts,  without 
ability  to  seize  relations  is  the  bane  of  our  age,  and  brings  about  stagna- 
tion in  Science.  Such  a  condition  may  arise  from  narrowness  of 
view,  when  one's  knowledge  is  not  sufficiently  extensive  to  bring 
into  the  vision  a  wide  range  of  apparently  unrelated  facts;  or  from 
mental  inability  to  weave  the  threads  of  thought  into  a  continuous 
fabric  even  when  the  connection  is  noticed. 

The  power  to  do  this  higher  constructive  work  in  Science  is  that 
of  genius  and  given  to  very  few.  To  judge  why  this  is  let  us  recall 
the  sketch  of  the  Character  of  Newton,  given  by  Whewell  in  his 
History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,  Vol.  II,  p.  183-5: 

"  It  is  not  easy  to  anatomise  the  constitution  and  the  opera- 
tions of  the  mind  which  makes  such  an  advance  in  knowledge. 
Yet  we  may  observe  that  there  must  exist  in  it,  in  an  eminent 
degree,  the  elements  which  compose  the  mathematical  talent.  It 
must  possess  distinctness  of  intuition,  tenacity  and  facility  in 
tracing  logical  connexion,  fertility  of  invention,  and  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  generalisation.  It  is  easy  to  discover  indications  of  these 
characteristics  in  Newton.  The  distinctness  of  his  intuitions  of 
space,  and  we  may  add  of  force  also,  was  seen  in  the  amusements 
of  his  youth;  in  his  constructing  clocks  and  mills,  carts  and  dials, 
as  well  as  the  facility  with  which  he  mastered  geometry.  This 
fondness  for  handicraft  employments,  and  for  making  models  and 
machines,  appears  to  be  a  common  prelude  of  excellence  in  phy- 
sical science;*  probably  on  this  very  account,  that  it  arises  from  the 
distinctness  of  intuitive  power  with  which  the  child  conceives  the 
shapes  and  the  working  of  such  material  combinations.  Newton's 
inventive  power  appears  in  the  number  and  variety  of  the  mathe- 
matical artifices  and  combinations  which  he  devised,  and  of  which 
his  books  are  full.  If  we  conceive  the  operation  of  the  inventive 
faculty  in  the  only  way  in  which  it  appears  possible  to  conceive 
it; — that  while  some  hidden  source  supplies  a  rapid  stream  of 
possible  suggestions,  the  mind  is  on  watch  to  seize  and  detain  any 
one  of  these  which  will  suit  the  case  in  hand,  allowing  the  rest  to 
pass  by  and  be  forgotten; — we  shall  see  what  extraordinary  fertility 
*As  in  Galileo,  Hooke,  Huyghens,  and  others. 


266        BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

of  mind  is  implied  by  so  many  successful  efforts;  what  an  innu- 
merable host  of  thoughts  must  have  been  produced,  to  supply  so 
many  that  deserved  to  be  selected.  And  since  the  selection  is 
performed  by  tracing  the  consequences  of  each  suggestion,  so  as 
to  compare  them  with  the  requisite  conditions,  we  see  also  what 
rapidity  and  certainty  in  drawing  conclusions  the  mind  must 
possess  as  a  talent,  and  what  watchfulness  and  patience  as  a  habit. 

"The  hidden  fountain  of  our  unbidden  thoughts  is  for  us  a 
mystery;  and  we  have,  in  our  consciousness,  no  standard  by  which 
we  can  measure  our  own  talents;  but  our  acts  and  habits  are  some- 
thing of  which  we  are  conscious;  and  we  can  understand,  there- 
fore, how  it  was  that  Newton  could  not  admit  that  there  was  any 
difference  between  himself  and  other  men,  except  in  his  possession 
of  such  habits  as  we  have  mentioned,  perseverance  and  vigilance. 
When  he  was  asked  how  he  made  his  discoveries,  he  answered, 
4 by  always  thinking  about  them;'  and  at  another  time,  he  declared 
that  if  he  had  done  anything,  it  was  due  to  nothing  but  industry 
and  patient  thought:  '  I  keep  the  subject  of  my  inquiry  constant- 
ly before  me,  and  wait  till  the  first  dawning  opens  gradually,  by 
little  and  little,  into  a  full  and  clear  light/  No  better  account 
can  be  given  of  the  nature  of  the  mental  effort  which  gives  to  the 
philosopher  the  full  benefit  of  his  powers;  but  the  natural  powers 
of  men's  minds  are  not  on  that  account  the  less  different.  There 
are  many  who  might  wait  through  ages  of  darkness  without  being 
visited  by  any  dawn." 

These  sagacious  remarks  on  Newton  apply  of  course  equally 
well  to  a  modern  philosopher.  Like  the  illustrious  Poincare,  See 
is  a  student  not  of  single,  isolated  facts,  but  of  the  principles  which 
connect  the  most  intricate  of  things  into  one  continuous  whole. 
In  the  introduction  to  the  Researches,  Vol.  II,  he  justly  exclaims: 
"One  true  principle  gives  unity  and  mental  connection  to  millions 
of  isolated  facts,  and  it  is  only  by  means  of  such  principles  that 
the  observed  facts  can  be  interpreted.  Why  not  therefore  give  a 
little  more  attention  to  the  discovery  of  principles?  All  the  im- 
portant epochs  in  the  past  history  of  science  have  been  made  in 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.   J.  J.   SEE  267 

this  way;  yet  this  very  tendency,  to  the  development  of  new  con- 
ceptions and  the  introduction  of  new  physical  laws,  is  the  one  which 
to-day  is  least  encouraged.  Few  are  supported  or  upheld  in  break- 
ing away  from  the  leading  strings  of  tradition.  Journals  and 
Learned  Societies  are  nearly  all  ultra  conservative,  and  very  timid 
about  entertaining  new  thought.  It  is  only  daring  individuals, 
not  aggregations  of  men,  who  have  the  courage  to  lead  the  way. 
Under  the  circumstances  can  any  one  be  surprised  that  years, 
decades,  and  even  centuries  pass  by  without  giving  birth  to  one 
grand  principle,  one  new  physical  law?" 

See's  powers  of  mathematical  and  physical  intuition  have 
thus  enabled  him  to  establish  two  new  physical  sciences  —  Cos- 
mogony, treating  of  the  Origin  of  the  Heavens;  and  Geogony,  deal- 
ing with  the  Origin  of  the  Earth.  The  sublime  Vision  of  the  Crea- 
tion, according  to  Nature's  Laws,  thus  unfolded  to  the  imagination, 
never  before  dawned  on  the  human  mind;  and  as  Halley  said  of 
the  discoveries  in  Newton's  Principia,  such  revelations  are  "almost 
Divine." 

It  is  by  reason  of  men  of  See's  type  that  early  in  the  20th 
century  the  center  of  gravity  of  discovery  was  finally  transferred 
from  Europe  to  America,  where  it  is  likely  to  remain  for  a  long 
time  to  come.  It  is  well  known  that  European  science  has  gone 
to  seed  in  narrow  specialization.  Besides,  the  old  countries  of 
Europe  can  no  longer  compete  with  the  lusty  vigor  of  this  mighty 
Republic,  with  its  uniformly  high  type  of  citizenship. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  discoveries  of  See  alone  have 
given  America  the  first  place  in  the  sciences  of  Astronomy  and 
Cosmogony,  and  the  Physics  of  the  Earth,  which  embraces  the 
sciences  of  Geology,  Seismology  and  Geodesy.  The  opening  sentence 
of  the  address  reprinted  in  Chapter  XIII :  "  We  are  assembled  to 
consider  the  great  Law  of  Nature  which  governs  the  Evolution  of 
Worlds,  and  to  celebrate  the  Founding  of  a  New  Science  of  the  Starry 
Heavens,"  grand  and  comprehensive  as  it  is,  recalls  but  a  part  of 
his  most  significant  discoveries. 


268         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

The  general  Law  of  Nature  established  by  See  to  the  effect  that  all 
planetary  bodies  are  formed  in  the  distance  and  afterwards  near  the 
centers  about  which  they  revolve  is  indeed  magnificient.  This  Capture 
Theory,  or  theory  of  addition  from  without,  in  contrast  to  Laplace's 
abandoned  theory  of  throwing  off,  is  shown  to  apply  to  the  entire 
sidereal  universe.  It  is  illustrated  by  phenomena  observed  in  the 
spiral  nebulae,  the  planetary  system,  the  double  and  multiple 
stars  and  clusters  and  the  star-clouds  of  the  Milky  Way.  Beyond 
a  doubt  this  theory  of  cosmical  evolution,  under  the  mutual  inter- 
action of  both  attractive  and  repulsive  forces,  and  the  resisting 
medium  resulting  from  the  dispersion  of  dust  from  the  stars,  is 
the  most  comprehensive  scientific  generalization  since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  law  of  universal  gravitation  by  Newton  in  1687. 

Accordingly,  the  daring  young  American  astronomer  who  had 
the  mathematical  ability  and  the  physical  and  philosophic  intui- 
tion to  reduce  to  law  and  order  the  hopeless  chaos  of  the  nebulae, 
and  thus  found  a  new  science  of  the  starry  heavens  which  won  him 
the  title  of  the  Newton  of  cosmogony  (1910),  by  his  latest  feat  in 
fathoming  the  depth  of  the  Milky  Way  and  developing  mathe- 
matically the  Herschel-See  theory  of  the  globular  clusters,  and 
thus  restoring  the  grand  ideas,  after  securing  the  republication  of 
the  Collected  Works  of  Sir  William  Herschel,  has  amply  fulfilled 
the  earlier  prophesy  that  he  would  become  the  Herschel  of 
America. 

After  an  unaccountable  neglect  of  ninety  years  the  works  of 
Sir  William  Herschel  have  just  been  reprinted  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  London. 
The  movement  was  started  by  Professor  See  and  ably  seconded 
by  the  illustrious  Sir  William  Huggins,  ex-president  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  founder  of  Astrophysics.  As  many  persons  may  not 
know  that  this  whole  matter  of  republishing  Herschel's  Scientific 
Papers  was  planned  by  Professor  See  in  his  quiet  study  at  Mare 
Island,  California,  we  give  an  account  of  this  important  move- 
ment. Soon  after  his  recovery  from  the  critical  illness  early  in 
1909,  Professor  See  sought  access  to  Herschel's  papers  in  the  Philo- 


SIR  WILLIAM  HUGGINS,  (1824-1910). 

Ex-President  of  the  Royal  Society,  Founder  of  the  New  Science  of  Astrophysics,  and  one 

of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  all  time.      He  was  a  steadfast  friend  of  Professor 

See,  and  among  the  first  to  adopt  his  discoveries  in  Cosmogony  and  Geogony. 


POST     CARD       $JI,y£,       CARTE     POS 
UNIVERSAL  POSTAL  UNION    J&S^    UNION  POSTAL: 

GREAT   BRITAIN   &  ]  ;D 


THIS     SIDE     FOR     THE     ADDRESS 


AUTOGRAPH  POSTAL  CARD  FROM  SIR  WILLIAM  HUGGINS. 

It  notifies  Professor  See  that  his  request  had  been  granted,  and  action  taken  by  the  Royal  Society  and  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society  looking  to  the  republication  of  the  Collected  Scientific  Papers  of  Sir  William  Herschel. 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  269 

sophical  Transactions,  at  the  library  of  the  University  of  California. 
By  courtesy  of  Mr.  J.  C.  Rowell,  librarian,  he  was  enabled  to 
carry  home  with  him  such  arm-loads  of  these  rare  volumes  as  his 
bodily  strength  then  permitted,  and  abstract  the  parts  that  would 
serve  immediate  needs.  Upon  application  to  other  prominent 
astronomers,  who  would  presumably  have  these  papers,  he  found 
that  no  one  had  a  copy,  or  had  ever  studied  Herschel's  works  with 
care  and  attention.  Professor  See  was  much  surprised  at  this 
neglect  of  Herschel's  priceless  papers,  and  it  set  him  thinking 
about  a  method  of  restoring  the  great  Herschel  to  his  rightful 
place  in  modern  astronomy. 

Accordingly  it  occurred  to  him  to  write  letters  to  the  Observa- 
tory, Nature,  and  the  British  Astronomical  Association,  urging  a 
movement  for  the  republication  of  Herschel's  Collected  Works. 
In  a  formal  letter  to  the  council  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society 
he  not  only  urged  the  republication  of  Herschel's  Collected  Works, 
but  himself  started  the  movement  by  formally  offering  a  sub- 
scription of  $100  as  the  first  step. 

A  little  later  it  occurred  to  him  to  appeal  directly  to  Sir  Wil- 
liam Huggins,  ex-president  of  the  Royal  Society,  to  move  for  the 
appointment  of  the  needed  joint  committee  of  the  Royal  Society 
and  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  to  consider  this  great  under- 
taking, which  would  bring  such  high  honor  to  these  illustrious 
societies.  Professor  See  concluded  his  appeal  to  Sir  William  Hug- 
gins  by  saying  that  if  he  could  see  his  way  to  take  the  initiative  in 
this  movement,  it  would  be  one  more  noble  service  to  Science,  and 
a  long  delayed  tribute  to  the  memory  of  so  great  and  good  a  man  as 
Herschel. 

The  appeal  had  the  desired  effect  —  since  Herschel's  memory 
is  justly  revered  in  England  —  and  on  January  20,  1910,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Huggins  wrote  to  notify  Professor  See  that  the  step  he  recom- 
mended had  been  taken,  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  autograph 
of  Sir  William  Huggins.  This  was  the  last  communication  ad- 
dressed to  Professor  See  by  Sir  William  before  his  lamented  death, 
in  the  eighty-seventh  year  of  his  age,  May  12,  1910. 


270         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

This  remarkable  chain  of  events,  causes  one  to  reflect  on 
what  small  matters,  at  the  right  time,  great  events  depend;  and 
if  they  are  not  done  then  the  opportunity  passes  by,  and  the  enter- 
prise may  be  defeated  forever.  The  recovery  of  Professor  See 
early  in  1909,  after  his  life  had  been  despaired  of,  was  considered 
by  his  physicians  almost  miraculous.  The  completion  of  his 
Researches,  Vol.  II,  was  the  immediate  incentive  to  an  examina- 
tion of  the  neglected  and  forgotten  works  of  Herschel.  This  led 
to  the  movement  for  republishing  Herschel's  Collected  Works, 
which  took  shape  just  in  time  to  be  well  started  under  the  revered 
leadership  of  Sir  William  Huggins,  who  was  able  to  attend  but  two 
meetings  of  the  Joint  Committee  before  he  was  himself  called  to 
join  Herschel  of  blessed  and  everlasting  memory. 

Every  student  of  scientific  truth  may  well  be  grateful  that 
the  chain  of  events  was  fortunate  enough  to  make  possible  the 
re-issue  of  the  priceless  papers  of  Herschel.  This  movement  could 
not  well  have  been  inaugurated  by  anyone  except  the  illustrious 
Sir  William  Huggins,  whose  whole  life  was  unselfishly  devoted  to 
the  advancement  of  truth.  It  is  fitting  that  such  a  noble  monu- 
ment to  Herschel  will  always  be  associated  in  the  minds  of  men 
with  the  justly  revered  memory  of  Sir  William  Huggins,  "the 
Herschel  of  the  spectroscope." 

In  concluding  now  the  work  of  this  biography  it  remains  to 
note  that  eminent  philosophers  agree  that  four  of  See's  most 
brilliant  achievements  constitute  a  series  of  discoveries  without 
a  parallel  since  the  age  of  Newton: 

1.  The  Establishment  of  the  Cause  of  Earthquakes,  Moun- 
tain Formation  and  kindred  phenomena  connected  with  the  physics 
of  the  earth,  and  thus  a  Science  of  Geogony,  May  21,  1906. 

2.  The  Founding  of  Cosmogony  as  a  New  Science  of  the 
Starry  Heavens, — thus  giving  us  the  laws  of  the  formation  of  the 
solar  system  and  of  cosmical  systems  generally.    July  14,  1908. 

3.  The  fathoming  of  the  Milky  Way  to  the  depth  of  several 
million  light-years  —  thereby  proving  that  the  extent  of  the 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.   SEE  271 

sidereal  universe  is  about  a  thousand  times  greater  than  astrono- 
mers have  recently  believed.    November  4,  1911. 

4.  The  development  of  the  dynamical  theory  of  clusters  and 
of  the  clustering  power  inferred  by  Herschel  from  the  observed 
figures  of  sidereal  systems  of  high  order.  February  19, 1912.  This 
establishes  forever  that  the  Capture  Theory  is  the  great  Law  of 
Nature,  and  is  the  latest  and  mathematically  the  profoundest  of 
the  researches  on  sidereal  evolution. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  these  unrivaled  results  of  the 
Herschel  of  America  have  shed  imperishable  luster  upon  his 
country  and  upon  his  age!  Posterity  may  well  marvel  over  the 
wonders  of  Nature  which  he  alone  was  able  to  explain.  This  was 
the  attitude  taken  by  the  illustrious  Poincare,  himself  the  greatest 
mathematician  since  Archimedes. 

Our  successors  will  witness  the  extension  of  the  grand  phenom- 
ena whose  laws  he  discovered,  yet  they  will  recognize  in  the 
circularity  of  the  paths  of  the  planets  and  satellites  the  operation 
of  the  nebular  resisting  medium  which  he  first  brought  to  light. 
Throughout  the  long  course  of  centuries  the  secular  acceleration 
of  the  moon  will  continue  to  bear  witness  to  the  capture  of  our 
satellite  by  the  earth,  and  astronomers  of  future  time  will  look 
back  to  this  great  triumph  of  human  ingenuity.  The  system  of 
the  comets  will  be  more  fully  revealed  to  us  by  discoveries  to  be 
made  hereafter,  but  the  elongated  forms  of  their  elliptic  orbits 
have  already  made  it  clear  that  these  mysterious  bodies  are  mere 
survivals  still  coming  to  us  from  the  outer  shell  of  the  ancient 
nebula  which  formed  the  solar  system. 

Even  in  the  remotest  ages  astronomers  will  still  be  gazing  at 
the  starry  heavens,  and  natural  philosophers  marveling  at  the 
mysteries  of  the  spiral  nebulae,  but  their  labors  will  be  simplified 
by  the  new  theory  of  repulsive  forces,  and  the  sublime  proof  that 
the  Deity  always  geometrizes,  and  thus  develops  out  of  chaos  the 
exquisite  order  of  the  system  of  the  world,  that  it  may  become  a 
fit  abode  for  the  children  of  men.  These  are  a  few  of  the  recollec- 


272         BRIEF  BIOGRAPHY  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

tions  which  always  will  be  associated  with  the  early  life  of  the 
Herschel  of  America,  who  was  the  first  to  interpret  the  lesson  of 
the  geometry  of  the  heavens. 

In  the  unfolding  of  this  majestic  panorama  of  the  creation, 
the  spectacle  of  the  stars  will  change,  and  improved  methods  of 
analysis  will  come  for  the  treatment  of  the  problems  which  he  pro- 
posed; but  the  wonders  of  the  starry  heavens,  growing  and  decay- 
ing under  the  mutual  interaction  of  attractive  and  repulsive  forces, 
will  always  bear  witness  to  the  philosophic  penetration  of  the 
illustrious  geometer,  who  alone  was  able  to  establish  the  laws  of 
their  evolution. 

Yet  as  the  poet  Thomson  sang  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton: 

"But  who  can  number  up  his  labors?    Who 
His  high  discoveries  sing?    When  but  a  few 
Of  the  deep-studying  race  can  stretch  their  minds 
To  what  he  knew:  in  Fancy's  lighter  thought, 
How  shall  the  Muse,  then,  grasp  the  mighty  theme?" 

********      "Ye  mouldering  stones, 
That  build  the  tow 'ring  pyramid,  the  proud 
Triumphal  arch,  the  monument,  effac'd 
By  ruthless  ruin,  and  what'er  supports 
The  worshipp'd  name  of  hoar  Antiquity, 
Down  to  the  dust!    What  grandeur  can  ye  boast, 
While  Newton  lifts  his  column  to  the  skies, 
Beyond  the  waste  of  Time?" 


O'er  thy  dejected  country  chief  preside, 

And  be  her  Genius  call'd!    her  studies  raise, 

Correct  her  manners,  and  inspire  her  youth. 

For,  though  deprav'd  and  sunk,  she  brought  thee  forth, 

And  glories  in  thy  name;  she  points  thee  out 

To  all  her  sons,  and  bids  them  eye  thy  Star." 

Owing  to  the  intimate  friendship  of  twenty  years  existing 
between  Sir  William  Huggins,  the  illustrious  founder  of  Astro- 


FROM  A  PHOTOGRAPH  OF  THE  FARNESI  GLOBE  IN  THE  MUSEUM,  NAPLES 

A  Greek  marble  globe  of  great  beauty;  ca.  A.D.  300 
J.  C.  Houseau,  Bib.  Gen.  de  PAstron.,  T.  I.,  P.  I.,  Int.  Chap.  IV.,  p.  138 


UNPARALLELED  DISCOVERIES  OF  T.  J.  J.  SEE  273 

physics,  and  Professor  See,  the  Founder  of  Cosmogony — the  only 
two  new  sciences  of  the  stars  established  within  the  memory  of 
living  investigators  —  it  will  be  appropriate  to  close  this  biography 
with  the  beautiful  and  impressive  U  envoy  employed  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam and  Lady  Huggins  to  conclude  their  Atlas  of  Representative 
Stellar  Spectra: 

"We  conclude  filled  with  a  sense  of  wonder  at  the  greatness 
of  the  human  intellect,  which  from  the  impact  of  waves  of  ether 
upon  one  sense-organ,  can  learn  so  much  of  the  universe  outside 
our  earth;  but  the  wonder  passes  into  awe  before  the  unimagi- 
nable magnitudes  of  Time,  of  Space,  and  of  Matter  of  this  Universe, 
as  if  a  Voice  were  heard  saying  to  man,  "Thou  art  no  Atlas  for  so 
great  a  weight." 


APPENDIX. 

NOTES  ON  SOME  EARLY  PROPHECIES  AND  ON  THE  PUBLIC  BANQUET 
TENDERED  DR.  SEE  BY  THE  SCIENCE  ASSOCIATION  OF  THE  UNI- 
VERSITY OF  MISSOURI,  JANUARY  20,  1898. 

It  has  been  noticed  by  many  sagacious  observers  that  from 
his  earliest  years  young  Mr.  See  was  so  fortunate  as  to  inspire,  by 
his  superior  talents  and  steadfastness  of  purpose,  the  utmost 
confidence  in  a  career  of  the  highest  eminence  in  Science.  At  the 
University  he  always  lived  up  to  high  principles,  and  was  frank 
and  open  in  his  stand  on  all  questions,  without  the  least  thought 
of  mere  popularity,  which  he  regarded  as  beneath  contempt.  He 
was  thus  recognized  as  a  rugged  character,  as  steadfast  as  a  moun- 
tain peak  towering  calmly  in  the  light  of  the  Sun,  high  above  the 
clouds  and  tumult  of  the  elements  below.  Though  sometimes  mis- 
understood among  his  associates,  his  influence  was  well-nigh  all- 
powerful,  and  far  exceeded  that  of  any  former  student  of  the 
University. 

As  illustrating  this  situation  it  is  interesting  to  recall  the  fact 
that  when  Mr.  See  graduated  with  such  high  honors,  in  June,  1889* 
the  Columbia  Statesman,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  influential 
newspapers  in  Missouri,  dwelt  editorially  at  some  length  on  the 
extraordinary  power  for  breaking  through  the  crust  which  young 
Mr.  See  had  shown  by  his  University  career  —  a  prophecy  since 
fulfilled  also  in  the  larger  affairs  of  the  world  of  Science.  This 
appraisement  by  the  Statesman  was  for  Mr.  See's  entire  college 
career  of  five  years. 

As  intimated  above,  there  were  times  when  he  had  been 
somewhat  misunderstood,  or  misrepresented  by  envious  individ- 
uals of  inferior  genius;  but  these  efforts  at  injuring  him  never 
were  successful  with  discerning  persons.  Thus,  during  a  college 

275 


276  APPENDIX 

controversy  of  1887,  which  had  been  incited  by  jealousy,  the 
thoughtful  student,  Mr.  S.  H.  VanTrump,  now  of  Gervais,  Oregon, 
made  the  well-known  prophecy  that  "See  had  the  scientific  genius 
of  a  Darwin,  and  that  the  day  would  come  when  the  University 
would  be  famous  as  his  Alma  Mater." 

Likewise,  near  his  home  in  Montgomery  County,  his  name 
was  always  a  synonym  for  eminence  and  high  achievement.  Thus 
in  September,  1893,  Hon.  Emil  Rosenberger,  now  President  of 
the  Historical  Society  of  Montgomery  County,  published  an 
article  in  the  Montgomery  Standard,  describing  the  giant  Yerkes 
Telescope,  then  on  exhibition  at  the  Columbian  World's  Fair  in 
Chicago,  and  predicting  that  Dr.  See  would  become  the  future 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  of  America. 

When  Dr.  See  had  been  a  year  and  a  half  with  Lowell  sur- 
veying the  Southern  double  stars  in  Arizona  and  at  the  City  of 
Mexico,  and  was  in  the  East  to  publish  his  results,  it  occurred  to 
the  University  of  Missouri  Science  Association  to  invite  him  to  a 
Public  Banquet  and  celebration  in  honor  of  his  discoveries.  His 
admirers  at  the  University  were  very  numerous  and  influential, 
and  the  plans  were  made  without  acquainting  Dr.  See  with  the 
details.  It  was  the  largest  banquet  of  the  kind  ever  held  at  the 
University  of  Missouri,  and  included  various  toasts  to  Science 
and  to  the  honored  guest. 

Dr.  See  was  so  surprised  at  the  enthusiasm  of  the  celebration 
as  to  be  visibly  embarrassed;  and  gently  indicated  to  his  friends 
that  he  would  have  felt  obliged  to  decline  had  he  known  that  such 
high  encomiums  were  to  be  pronounced  upon  him.  His  class- 
mate, Professor  C.  F.  Marbut,  for  example,  in  response  to  the 
toast  to  the  Class  of  1889,  concluded  by  remarking  that  Dr.  See's 
leadership  in  Science  was  such  that  he  could  only  say: 

"It  is  superfluous  to  praise  the  gods." 


APPENDIX  277 

REMARKS  ON  THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  DR.   SEE'S  RESEARCHES  AND 

DISCOVERIES. 

(Embodied  in  a  letter  from  his  former  teacher,  Professor  W.  B.  Smith,  of 
Tulane  University,  New  Orleans,  to  Professor  Milton  Updegraff,  for  the 
University  Science  Association,  on  the  occasion  of  a  banquet  and  celebration 
in  honor  of  Dr.  See,  held  at  the  University  of  Missouri,  January  20,  1898.) 

Tulane  University  of  Louisiana, 

College  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
New  Orleans,  La.,  Jan.  17,  1898. 
DEAR  PROFESSOR: 

Please  accept  the  assurance  of  my  sincere  thanks  for 
the  invitation  to  hear  the  address  of  Dr.  See  on  the  twentieth  and 
to  attend  the  banquet  to  be  given  in  his  honor,  along  with  my 
unfeigned  regret  at  not  being  able  to  accept.  No  one  could  sym- 
pathize more  heartily  than  I  in  any  recognition  of  the  distinguished 
merits  and  achievements  of  Dr.  See  in  the  domain  of  exact  astron- 
omy. He  has  borne  the  name  of  Missouri  in  honor  into  eternal 
regions  where  the  fame  of  her  extent,  her  industries,  her  commerce, 
her  products,  her  cities,  her  railroads,  her  newspapers,  yea,  even 
of  her  statesmen  and  her  warriors  must  remain  forever  silent.  It 
would  be  the  merest  commonplace  to  enlarge  upon  the  fact  that 
researches  like  his  in  the  most  inaccessible  provinces  of  the  sub- 
limest  of  applied  sciences  have  enduring  virtue,  outlasting  marble, 
brass,  or  strength  of  steel,  but  it  may  be  allowed  to  stress  in  a  few 
words  their  important  bearing  on  the  deeper  problems  and  higher 
hopes  of  our  common  humanity.  For,  unless  I  widely  err,  the 
determinations  of  pure  science  are  the  stable  elements  of  our 
present  civilization,  they  are  the  pillared  trust  of  the  generations 
yet  to  come.  It  is  an  age  of  cynicism,  realism,  indifferentism, 
moneyism.  Unrest  and  unfaith  in  the  true,  beautiful  and  good 
are  widespread  and  daily  becoming  more  insolent.  No  clear-eyed 
patriot  can  look  around  upon  our  whole  civil  polity  without  grave 
and  just  alarm.  On  all  sides  our  high  ideals  are  falling  and  the 
walls  of  distinction  are  crumbling  away.  In  art  the  contrast  of 
the  beautiful  and  the  ugly  is  openly  rejected;  in  literature  the 


278  APPENDIX 

clean  and  the  unclean  walk  side  by  side;  in  politics  the  cry  waxes 
louder  that  "Fair  is  Foul  and  Foul  is  Fair;"  "Black  spirits  and 
white,  red  spirits  and  gray"  mingle  and  hobnob  in  the  world's 
congress  of  religions;  in  medicine  the  most  advanced  methods  con- 
tend with  degrading  superstitions,  and  splendid  temples  are 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  humbug;  right  and  wrong  are  con- 
founded in  morals,  while  worth  and  unworth  are  rated  precisely 
alike  on  the  rolls  of  reward.  Science  alone,  exact  science,  still 
proclaims  uncompromisingly  the  immutable  antithesis  of  true  and 
false,  still  sinks  deeper  and  deeper  the  foundations,  raises  higher 
and  higher  the  pinnacles  of  knowledge,  a  house  not  made  with 
hands,  eternal  as  the  heavens. 

But  while  it  is  the  glorious  mission  of  all  exact  science  thus 
to  establish  and  defend  the  objective  verity  of  the  universe  against 
prevalent  skepticism,  it  is  an  especial  virtue  of  the  science  of  the 
stars  to  quicken  the  saving  sense  of  the  dignity  of  man,  a  sense 
dulled  and  endangered  daily  by  the  gigantic  developments  and 
consolidations  of  modern  industrialism.  The  ennobling  worth 
of  such  sublime  studies  has  been  felt  and  celebrated  in  every  age. 
It  was  Ptolemy  that  said: 

"Though  but  the  being  of  a  day, 
When  I  the  planet-paths  survey, 

My  feet  the  dust  despise; 
Up  to  the  throne  of  God  I  mount 
And  quaff  from  an  immortal  fount 

The  nectar  of  the  skies." 

Both  the  State  and  the  University,  therefore,  honor  themselves 
in  honoring  their  eminent  son,  and  they  do  well  to  point  their 
youth  to  such  examples.  With  heartiest  greetings  to  yourself  and 
family,  Very  sincerely  yours, 

W.  B.  SMITH. 
To  Prof.  Milton  Updegraff . 

(Reprinted  from  the  University  Independent,  of  May  28,  1898.) 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


ADAMS,  Professor  W.  S.,  estimates  60- 
inch  reflector  at  Pasadena,  will  show 
visually  18th  magnitude  stars,  211; 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol. 
11,246 

Alexander  the  Great,  the  marching  of 
his  army  through  the  sea,  134 

Anaxagoras,  celebrated  Greek  philos- 
opher, develops  Cosmogony,  163; 
and  the  theory  of  Cosmical  Evolution, 
188 

Anaximander,  Greek  astronomer,  de- 
velops Cosmogony,  163 

Andre,  Professor  Charles,  late  Director 
of  Observatory  of  Lyons,  discusses 
Professor  See's  discoveries,  243 

Apollonius,  celebrated  Greek  geometer, 
163;  on  the  apparent  motions  of  the 
planets,  166 

Antoninus  Pius,  Emperor  of  Rome,  the 
Almagest  composed  during  his  reign, 

Arago,  Francois,  French  astronomer,  his 
eulogy  of  Herschel,  260;  his  eulogy 
of  Fourier  and  description  of  the 
vision  of  genius,  264 

Archimedes,  of  Syracuse,  celebrated 
Greek  geometer,  his  independence 
of  common  opinion,  95,  96;  high 
importance  of  his  discoveries,  96;  on 
the  foundations  of  Astronomy,  163; 
on  the  apparent  motions  of  the  plan- 
ets, 166;  his  inventive  genius,  240 

Aristarchus,  famous  Greek  astronomer, 
163;  on  the  apparent  motions  of  the 
planets,  166 

Aristotle,  celebrated  Greek  philosopher, 
his  habits  of  independence  and  free 
initiative,  vi;  durability  of  his  work, 
87;  his  theory  of  earthquakes  trans- 
lated by  See,  98;  treats  of  earth- 
quakes in  the  book  on  Meteorology, 
because  he  held  they  were  due  to 
agitating  vapors  confined  within  the 
crust  and  trying  to  escape  into  the 
Earth's  atmosphere,  99;  remarks  on 
the  prevalence  of  earthquakes  in 
maritime  districts,  99;  his  penetrat- 
ing intuition  and  the  vast  extent  of  his 
knowledge,  101;  11  years  old  when 
the  earthquake  destroyed  Helike, 


135;  his  work  on  the  apparent  mo- 
tions of  the  planets,  166;  his  in- 
spiring reasoning  on  the  gods,  255 

Arrhenius,  Professor  Suante,  eminent 
Swedish  physicist,  on  repulsive  forces 
in  Nature,  70;  adopts  theory  that 
volcanoes  depend  on  the  sea,  136; 
advances  Cosmogony,  168;  his  ad- 
dress to  Monist  Congress  in  Hamburg 
1911,  243;  impression  of  See's  Re- 
searches, Vol.  II,  246 

Ayers,  Dr.  Howard,  eminent  biologist, 
Mr.  E.  E.  See  instructed  by,  7 

BABINET,  J.,  French  physicist,  his 
criterion  in  Cosmogony,  168,  171, 
172,  183,  226,  230 

Baillaud,  Benjamin,  Director  of  the 
Paris  Observatory,  impression  of 
See's  Researches,  Vol.  II,  246 

Barclay,  Robert,  statement  as  to  con- 
gregations of  Schwenkfelders  in  Perm, 
in  1875,  2 

Barnard,  Professor  E.  E.,  eminent 
American  astronomer,  secured  for 
Yerkes  Observatory,  56;  many  years 
of  his  life  usefully  employed  at  Yerkes 
Observatory,  57;  his  magnificent 
photographs  of  the  Milky  Way,  70, 
232;  nebulosity  shown  on  back- 
ground of  the  sky,  232;  impression 
of  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II,  246 

Bartholdi,  instructor  of  A.  von  Hum- 
boldt,  30 

Bartlett,  Professor  W.  H.  C.,  of  West 
Point,  calculates  distance  of  stars, 
205 

Beaumont,  Elie  de,  French  geologist, 
his  theory  of  mountain  formation 
set  forth  in  1829, 129 

Belpolski,  Professor  A.,  of  Poulkowa, 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol. 
II,  246 

Bergstrand,  Professor  Osten,  of  Upsala, 
Swedish  astronomer,  uses  Dr.  See's 
observations,  74 

Bessel,  F.  W.,  celebrated  German  as- 
tronomer, 197;  first  determines  the 
distance  of  the  fixed  stars  by  actual 
measurement,  1838,  197 


281 


282 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Bismarck,  Count  Otto,  German  chancel- 
lor, seen  by  Mr.  See  in  parade  with 
Emperors  of  Germany  and  Russia, 
48 

Black,  Mr.,  farmer  near  Wellsville,  Mo. 
friend  of  Noah  See,  20 

Blondel,  M.,  French  authority  on  pro- 
jectiles, 1685,  235 

Bohlin,  Professor  K.,  of  Stockholm, 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  vol. 
II,  246 

Bohme,  Jacob,  his  religious  followers 
associated  with  Schenkfelders  in 
Prussian  Silesia,  2 

Boone,  Daniel,  pioneer,  his  conflicts 
with  the  Indians,  9 

Boss,  Professor  Lewis,  deduces  proper 
motions  of  stars,  204 

Bowditch,  Dr.  Nathaniel,  his  trans- 
lation of  Laplace's  M/canique  C&este 
discovered  by  young  Mr.  See,  34 

Bouguer,  P.,  French  academician,  on 
the  attraction  of  Chimborazo,  107 

Bradley,  James,  eminent  English  as- 
tronomer, discovers  the  aberration 
of  light,  1727,  249 

Brelsford,  Lafayette,  boyhood  teacher 
of  Professor  See,  24 

Brendel,  Dr.  Martin,  lectures  on  as- 
tronomy at  Berlin,  47 

Brown,  Professor  E.  W.,  eminent 
mathematician  of  Yale  University, 
confirms  capture  of  satellites,  162, 
176;  impression  of  See's  Researches, 
Vol.  II,  246 

Brown,  Professor  S.  J.,  U.S.N.,  gives 
up  26-inch  telescope  to  become  As- 
tronomical Director  of  Naval  Ob- 
servatory, 72 

Bruhns,  C.,  Professor,  his  life  of  Hum- 
boldt  cited,  30 

Bryan,  Hon.  Wm.  J.,  American  Secre- 
tary of  State,  his  father,  Judge  Silas 
Bryan,  induces  Hon.  Charles  Michael 
See  to  take  up  study  of  family  history 
of  the  Sees,  3 

Bryan,  Judge  Silas,  father  of  Hon.  Wm. 
J.  Bryan,  interests  Hon.  Charles 
Michael  See  in  study  of  the  family 
history,  1880,  3 

Buckner,  Hon.  A.  H.,  member  of  Con- 
gress, would  need  a  successor,  25 

Burckhardt,  J.  C.,  German  astronomer, 
investigates  motion  of  comets  near 
Jupiter,  74 


Burkhalter,  Professor  Charles,  Director 
of  Chabot  Observatory,  Oakland, 
California,  impression  of  See's  Re- 
searches, Vol.  II,  246 

Burnham,  S.  W.,  famous  American 
double  star  observer,  quits  Lick  Ob- 
servatory, 55;  in  private  station 
could  not  start  the  Yerkes  Observa- 
tory, 56;  many  years  of  his  life  use- 
fully employed  at  Yerkes  Observa- 
tory, 57;  works  on  double  star  orbits 
with  Dr.  See  in  Chicago,  58;  closely 
associated  with  See  almost  daily,  58; 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol. 
II,  246 

Burrard,  Colonel  Sidney  G.,  R.  E.,  F. 
R.S.,  Surveyor-general  of  India,  con- 
cludes that  Himalayas  were  pushed 
northward,  138 

CESAR,  Julius,  his  legions  at  Rome, 
2,000  years  ago,  50 

Campbell,  Professor  W.  W.,  Director  of 
Lick  Observatory,  uses  motion  in 
line  of  sight  on  binaries,  59;  finds 
distance  of  225  helium  stars  to  be  540 
light-years,  202;  explanation  of 
method  employed  by,  203,  204 

Carslaw,  Professor  H.  S.,  University  of 
Sydney,  impression  of  See's  Re- 
searches, Vol.  II,  246 

Cauthorn,  Professor  William,  teaches 
geometry  to  Mr.  See,  32 

Chase,  Professor  F.  L.,  Director  of  Yale 
Observatory,  his  researches  on  the 
parallax  of  stars,  197 

Christ  and  the  Apostles,  we  still  live  in 
the  time  of,  256 

Cicero,  Roman  author,  preserves  Aris- 
totle's argument  on  the  existence  of 
gods,  255 

Clairault,  A.,  eminent  French  mathe- 
matician, extends  theory  of  gravita- 
tion, 249 

Clark,  Alvan  G.,  telescope-maker,  at 
Lowell  Observatory,  1896,  63 

Clark,  Alvan  &  Sons,  had  unground  discs 
afterwards  used  for  lenses  of  Yerkes 
telescope,  54;  progress  in  the  grind- 
ing of  the  lenses  in  1894,  55 

Clark,  Hon.  Champ,  speaker  of  National 
House  of  Representatives,  his  biog- 
raphy by  Webb,  vii;  George  See, 
friend  and  adviser  of,  7;  Noah  See 
hears  his  speeches,  16;  preceded  in 
Congress  by  Buckner,  25;  leader  in 
Legislature  of  1889,  37;  conducts 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


283 


inquiry  into  University  of  Missouri, 
38;  wins  title  of  "Founder  of  the 
University,"  38;  designates  Professor 
See  "the  American  Herschel,"  257 

Clerke,  Miss  A.  M.,  historian  of  as- 
tronomy during  19th  century,  enter- 
tains Mr.  See  in  London,  52;  dis- 
tance of  remote  stars  "less  than 
36,000  light-years,"  205 

Cobb,  Professor  Collier,  of  University 
ofN.  C,  15 

Cobb,  Judge  A.  J.,  of  Georgia,  15 
Cobb,  Howell,  celebrated  statesman, 

15 

Cobb,  Phillip,  one  of  the  maternal 
great  grand-fathers  of  Professor  See, 
enters  land  on  Loutre,  now  called 
Starlight,  15;  family  from  Kentucky, 
but  originally  from  Va.,  and  of 
English  origin,  15;  others  of  this 
name,  in  N.C.  and  Ga.,15 

Cobb,    Samuel,    brother    of    Phillip, 

marries   Sarah,    sister   of   Emanuel 

Sailor,  5 
Cockrell,  U.  S.  Senator  Francis  M.,  his 

speeches  heard  by  Noah  See,   16; 

would  need  a  successor  in  Congress, 

25 

Cogshall,  Professor  W.  A.,  assistant  of 
Dr.  See  at  Lowell  Observarory,  63; 
works  hard  in  sweeping  for  double 
stars,  65,  66;  aids  in  rebuilding 
Lowell  Observatory  at  Mexico,  69; 
develops  taste  for  astronomy,  Di- 
rector of  Kirkwood  Observatory,  69 

Copernicus,  Nicholas,  founder  of  mod- 
ern astronomy,  Professor  See  born 
on  393d  birthday  of,  10;  marks  an 
epoch,  35;  epoch  of  dates  drom  1543, 
166,  248,  249 

Crawford,  Professor  R.  T.,  University 
of  California,  impression  of  See's 
Researches,  Vol.  II,  246 

Cowell,  Dr.  P.  H.,  English  astronomer, 
his  researches  on  ancient  eclipses, 
231 

Crockett,  Davy,  American  pioneer, 
when  sure  he  is  right,  dares  to  go 
ahead,  85 

Curtis,  Professor  H.  D.,  Lick  Observa- 
tory, finds  distance  of  312  stars  to  be 
534  light-years,  202 

Curtius,  Professor  E.,  eminent  German 
historian  of  Greece,  on  the  import- 
ance of  ancestry,  1 


Cutts,  Mrs.  E.  V.,  of  Mare  Island, 
Calif.,  her  historic  photographs  of 
the  earthquake  effects  at  Arica,  1868, 
149 

DANA,  Professor  J.  D.,  views  on  funda- 
mental relations  of  the  mountains 
to  the  sea,  111,  113,  129;  misleading 
doctrine  of  the  shrinkage  of  the  Earth 
114 

Darwin,  Charles,  celebrated  British 
naturalist,  his  works  much  read  by 
M.  F.  See,  6;  accepts  doctrine  of 
elevation  of  land  by  earthquakes, 
115,  126;  notes  recent  elevation  of 
1,300  feet  at  Valparaiso,  126 

Darwin,  Sir  George  H.,  the  late  eminent 
British  mathematician,  classic  style 
of  writing,  31;  modifies  Laplace's 
nebular  hypothesis,  36;  entertains 
Mr.  See  in  Cambridge,  52;  rigidity 
of  the  earth,  93;  method  lacks  gener- 
ality, 94;  shows  that  the  earth  be- 
haves as  a  solid,  115,  132;  views 
formerly  held  on  the  rotation  of 
earth  now  inadmissible,  158,  237; 
deceived  in  Cosmogony,  164;  Cos- 
mogony advanced  by,  168,  244;  re- 
searches on  periodic  orbits,  172; 
curves  of  zero  velocity,  174;  sup- 
posed exceptional  origin  of  the  Moon, 
179-180,  232,  244;  theory  of  fluid  fis- 
sion, 195,  230;  notice  of  his  death, 
244,  Dyson's  remarks  on  his  cherished 
thought,  244;  one  of  his  greatest 
services  to  science,  his  early  support 
of  Professor  See,  244;  his  last  public 
utterance  to  the  international  con- 
gress of  mathematicians,  1912,  245; 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol. 
II,  246 

Daubree,  A.,  French  geologist,  experi- 
ments on  penetration  of  water  through 
rock,  115,  117 

Davis,  Jefferson,  President  of  Southern 
Confederacy,  Professor  See  partially 
named  in  honor  of,  6 

Defoe,  Professor  L.  M.,  University  of 
Missouri,  Mr.  Webb  indebted  to, 
introduction,  vii;  his  career  in 
Science  inspired  by  Smith,  32 

Delandres,  Professor  H.,  of  Meudon, 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol. 
II,  247 

Democritus,  eminent  Greek  philoso- 
pher, develops  Cosmogony,  163 

Diaz,  Porfirio,  President  of  Mexico, 
visits  Lowell  Observatory,  68 


284 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Diehl,  Professor  of  Art,  at  University  of 
Missouri,  his  remarks  on  the  artistic 
talent  of  young  Mr.  See,  27 

Dinwiddie,  Mr.  W.  W.,  assistant  at 
Naval  Observatory,  verifies  existence 
of  belts  on  Neptune  discovered  by 
Professor  See,  72 

Doeppler,  Christian,  his  principle  in 
Wave  Theory  of  light,  198 

Doolittle,  Professor  Eric,  of  University 
of  Penn.,  student  with  Dr.  See  at 
Chicago,  58,  59 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  publishers, 
New  York,  to  publish  Professor  See's 
"Popular  Cosmogony,"  225 

Douglass,  Mr.  A.  E.,  Assistant  at  Lowell 
Observatory,  63;  aids  in  rebuilding 
the  observatory  at  Mexico,  69 

Drew,  Mr.  D.  A.,  assistant  at  Lowel 
Observatory,  63;   aids  in  rebuilding 
the  observatory  at  Mexico,  69 

Dreyer,  Dr.  J.  L.  E.,  editor  of  Herschel's 
Collected  Works,  letter  to  Professor 
See,  219;  interview  of  Herschel  with 
Napoleon  and  Laplace  preserved  by, 
223 

Dutton,  Major  C.  E.,  notices  prevalence 
of  great  earthquakes  near  Aleutian 
Islands,  123 

Dyson,  Professor  F.  W.,  Astronomer 
Royal  of  Great  Britain,  uses  Dr.  See's 
observations,  74;  his  remarks  on  a 
cherished  thought  of  Sir  George 
Darwin,  244;  impression  of  See's 
Researches,  Vol.  II,  247 

EDDINGTON,  Professor  A.  S.,  formerly 
of  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich, 
now  of  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
neglect  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica,  195 

Elliott,  Benjamin,  Professor  See's  first 
teacher,  12;  letter  describing  first 
day  in  school,  12;  a  good  mathema- 
tician, 17,  24;  teaches  Mr.  See  phy- 
sical geography,  29 

Elkin,  Professor  W.  L.,  of  Yale,  on  the 
parallax  of  stars,  197 

Eudoxus,  Greek  astronomer,  his  work 
on  the  apparent  motions  of  the 
planets,  166 

Euler,  Leonard,  eminent  Swiss  mathe- 
matician, infers  that  the  planets 
originated  far  from  the  Sun,  1749, 
232;  extends  the  theory  of  gravita- 
tion, 249 


FAYE,  H.,  French  astronomer,  cited  by 
Poincar^,  150, 151 

Ficklin,  Professor  Joseph,  confirms  Mr. 
See  in  his  enthusiasm  for  geometry 
and  mathematics,  32;  kind  and 
gentle  to  students,  32;  his  death  in 
1887,  32,  35;  a  good  teacher,  34; 
gives  young  Mr.  See  the  keys  to  the 
Observatory,  36 

Fisher,  Rev.  O.,  English  geologist, 
shows  that  the  shrinkage  of  the  globe 
is  totally  inadequate  to  explain 
mountains,  114 

Fitzroy,  Captain,  R.  N.,  observes 
effects  of  earthquake  of  1835  in  Chile, 
126 

Fleet,  Professor  A.  F.,  awakens  Mr. 
See's  love  of  Greek,  30,  32;  considers 
him  of  Greek  type  of  mind,  85 

Folk,  Governor  J.  W.,  appoints  R.  E. 
See  to  office,  8 

Foerster,  Professor  Wilhelm,  Director 
of  Royal  Observatory,  Berlin,  47; 
advises  Mr.  See  in  relation  to  his 
studies,  47;  prints  his  double  star 
work  in  a  volume  of  the  Royal  Ob- 
servatory publications,  47;  tells 
Emperor  William  of  the  high  promise 
of  this  American  student,  48;  sur- 
prised by  Mr.  See's  energy,  48 

Fontenelle,  perpetual  Secretary  of  Paris 
Academy  of  Sciences,  rejects  Roe- 
mer's  theory  of  velocity  of  light,  249 

Forsyth,  Professor  A.  R.,  eminent 
English  mathematician,  entertains 
Mr.  See  in  Cambridge,  52 

Fourier,  Joseph,  eminent  French  math- 
ematician, notices  that  the  law  of 
gravitation  acts  as  preservative 
power,  240 

Francis,  Gov.  D.  R.,  presides  at  Uni- 
versity Commencement,  1889,  43; 
gives  Mr.  See  an  official  letter  of 
introduction  for  use  in  Europe,  43 

Frederick  the  Great,  king  of  Prussia, 
protects  Schwenkfelders  in  Prussian 
Silesia,  2 

Frisbie,  Professor  Edgar,  U.S.N.,  gives 
up  12-inch  equatorial  of  naval  ob- 
servatory on  retiring,  71 

Frost,  Professor  E.  B.,  Director  of 
Yerkes  Observatory,  opportunity  for 
opened  by  Dr.  See's  starting  of  the 
Yerkes  Observatory,  57;  reaches  sad 
conclusion  as  to  modern  Cosmogony, 
171 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


285 


Fuchs,  Professor  L.,  eminent  mathe- 
matician at  the  University  of  Berlin, 
47;  advises  Mr.  See  as  to  his  studies, 
47;  fine  lecturer  in  mathematics,  47 

GALILEO,  Galilei,  observes  swinging 
lamp  in  cathedral  at  Pisa,  23;  the 
things  associated  with  at  Pisa  and 
Florence  studied  by  Mr.  See,  50;  his 
invention  of  the  telescope,  73,  249; 
his  independence  in  pioneer  work, 
95,  96;  his  opponents  wish  to  avoid 
knowing  the  truth,  95,  96;  his  epoch 
in  astronomy,  167;  discovery  of 
mountains  on  the  Moon,  181 

Galle,  Dr.  J.  G.,  discoverer  of  Neptune, 
uses  9-inch  refractor  at  Berlin,  47 

Geary,  Dr.  James,  of  Ohio,  first  hus- 
band of  Ann  Hollett,  who,  after  his 
death,  married  Emanuel  Sailor,  5 

Geikie,  Sir  A.,  proportion  of  steam  in 
vapor  escaping  from  volcanoes,  106, 
133;  estimates  bulk  of  Andes,  140 

Gibbon,  Edward,  historianof  the  Roman 
Empire,  recognizes  that  importance 
of  ancestry  often  is  overrated,  1 

Gill,  Sir  David,  his  estimate  of  Dr. 
See's  double  star  work,  67,  68;  on 
the  parallax  of  stars,  197;  impression 
of  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II,  247 

Goethe,  the  great  German  poet,  his  ex- 
pression "Light,  more  light"  recalled 
by  Mr.  See,  49 

Gomperz,  Professor  Theodore,  cites 
views  of  Anaxagoras,  188 

Green,  George,  English  mathematician, 
his  theorem  cited,  217,  218 

Grew,  Edwin  Sharpe,  geophysicist,  his 
estimate  of  See's  argument  on  earth- 
quakes and  mountain  formation, 
139 

Grote,  George,  English  historian  of 
Greece,  recognizes  that  importance 
of  ancestry  may  be  overrated,  1 

Guilleman,  A.,  French  astronomer, 
finds  distance  of  remote  stars  "up- 
wards of  20,000  light-years,"  205 

Guthnick,  Dr.  P.,  German  astronomer, 
his  photometric  researches  on  vari- 
ability of  satellites,  233 

HADRIAN,  Emperor  of  Rome,  seeks  safe- 
ty from  earthquakes  at  Antioch,  97; 
the  Almagest  composed  in  his  reign, 

Haeckel,  Professor  Ernst,  German 
naturalist,  his  works  much  read  by 
M.  F.  See,  6 


Hale,  Professor  G.  E.,  had  private 
observatory  in  Chicago,  54;  informs 
Mr.  Yerkes  of  the  existence  of  un- 
ground  lenses,  54;  with  Dr.  Harper 
secures  funds  for  lenses,  54,  spends 
winter  of  1893-4  in  Europe,  no  prog- 
ress made  with  the  Yerkes  Observa- 
tory, 55;  establishes  Astrophysicai, 
Journal,  56;  dubious  outlook  arising 
from  delay  of  observatory,  56;  blames 
Dr.  See  for  reduction  of  Yerkes  Ob- 
servatory budget,  57;  held  rank  of 
associate  professor,  58 

Hale,  Wm.  Bayard,  author,  and  biog- 
rapher of  President  Woodrow  Wil- 
son, his  account  of  "Exploring  other 
Worlds"  in  World's  Work,  257;  his 
designation  of  Professor  See,  257 

Hall,  Professor  Asaph,  held  that  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  test  New- 
tonian Law  in  stellar  systems  prior  to 
Dr.  See's  proof  of  a  new  method,  59 

Halley,  Dr.  Edmund,  friend  of  Newton, 
describes  the  discoveries  in  the  Prin- 
cipia,  as  "almost  divine,"  267 

Hance,  Jas.  R.,  merchant,  book  on 
astronomy,  purchased  by  young  Mr. 
See  at  his  store  in  Montgomery  City, 
Mo.,  Oct.  1, 1883,  26 

Hancock,  Professor  Harris,  University 
of  Cincinnati,  his  intimate  associa- 
tion with  Mr.  See  at  the  University 
of  Berlin,  vii;  Mr.  Webb  indebted  to, 
vii 

Harper,  President  W.  R.,  visits  Berlin 
and  meets  Mr.  See,  54;  plans  to  have 
Mr.  See  aid  him  in  establishing  ob- 
servatory at  Chicago  to  cost  $200,000 
to  $300,000,  54;  unable  to  maintain 
Yerkes  Observatory,  until  shown 
how  it  can  be  done  by  Dr.  See,  56; 
appreciates  his  services  but  lets  him 
leave,  57;  defaults  on  agreement  to 
have  Volume  I  of  Dr.  See's  Researches 
published  by  the  University  of 
Chicago,  59,  60 

Harris,  Rollin  A.,  map  of  ocean  depths, 
104 

Hay  ford,  Professor  J.  F.,  defects  in  his 
formulation  of  doctrine  of  Isostacy, 
152-155 

Helmholtz,  Professor  Hermann,  emi- 
nent German  physicist,  45,  47,  136; 
advises  Dr.  See  in  mathematical 
physics,  47;  difficult  to  converse 
with,  47;  Lord  Rayleigh  notes  silent 
disposition,  47 

Henderson,  Ex-Senator  John  B.,  his 
speeches  heard  by  Noah  See,  16 


286 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Henderson,  Thomas,  astronomer  at 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  first  measures 
distance  of  Alpha  Centauri,  197 

Henry  Brothers,  French  astronomers, 
discover  belts  on  Uranus,  1884,  72 

Herschel,  Abraham,  grandfather  of  Sir 

Wm.  Herschel,  born  in  1651,  262 
Herschel,    Alexander    and    Diedrich, 

brothers  of  Sir  Wm.  Herschel,  aided 

by  him,  260 
Herschel,  Caroline,    sister  of  Sir  W. 

Herschel,  provided  for  in  old  age  by 

him,  260 
Herschel,   Hans,   father  of  Abraham 

Herschel  and  great  grandfather  of 

Sir  William,  262 
Herschel,  Isaac,  father  of  Sir  William, 

born  in  1707,  263 

Herschel,  Sir  John,  elegant  writer,  31; 
memorable  survey  of  Southern  stars, 
1834-8,  67;  deceived  in  Cosmog- 
ony, 164;  errors  on  depth  of  Milky 
Way,  198,  205;  estimates  distances 
of  remote  stars  "upwards  of  2,000 
light-years,"  205;  elected  President 
of  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  261 

Herschel,  Sir  Wm.,  makes  first  great 
epoch  in  double  star  astronomy,  61 ; 
his  sacrifices  to  science,  86;  his  epoch 
in  astronomy,  167;  papers  on  central 
powers,  185,  188;  nebulae  observed 
by,  190;  notes  aggregation  of  stars 
towards  centers,  195;  depth  of 
Milky  Way,  calculated  by,  198;  star 
guages,  199;  invents  method  appli- 
cable to  the  most  distant  objects, 
199,  215;  employs  20-foot  telescope 
of  18-inches  aperture,  200, 201 ;  space 
penetrating  power  of  telescopes 
calculated  by,  200,  201;  notices  that 
the  Galaxy  is  a  clustering  stream 
203,  216;  the  greatest  of  all  modem 
astronomers,  and  reissue  of  his  col- 
lected works  recommended,  203; 
estimates  distance  of  remotest  stars 
at  2,000,000  light-years,  205, 212, 215, 
238;  neglect  of  his  correct  estimate 
of  distance  of  the  remotest  stars,  206; 
estimates  width  of  the  Milky  Way, 
206;  calculates  thickness  of  Milky 
Way  stratum,  207;  ignores  extinction 
of  light  in  space,  208,  209 ;  his  method 
essentially  valid,  210;  expansion  of 
sidereal  astronomy  by,  213;  notices 
that  clusters  follow  the  Milky  Way, 
215;  penetrates  into  time  past,  216; 
remarks  on  the  effects  of  perspective, 
owing  to  depth  of  Milky  Way,  216; 


notices  the  globular  figures  of  clusters 
217;  speculates  on  causes  of  these 
magnificent  objects,  217;  clustering 
powers  noticed  by,  218,  220,  221,  227, 
228,  238,  271 ;  Letter  from  Dr.  Dreyer 
to  See  regarding  Herschel's  theories, 
219;  neglect  of  Herschel's  work  since 
his  death  in  1822,  219;  worked  alone 
on  the  great  problems  of  the  universe, 
220;  grandeur  of  his  views  on  the 
breaking  of  the  Milky  Way,  222,  237; 
his  interview  with  Napoleon,  and 
Laplace,  1802,  223;  his  inference 
that  starless  space  is  the  effect  of  the 
ravages  of  time,  229,  235;  sidereal 
systems  preserved  by  projectile 
motions,  229;  his  philosophic  intui- 
tion into  the  order  of  nature,  239, 
240 ;  his  theories  revived  and  extended 
by  See,  244;  his  theories  accepted  by 
men  of  science,  245;  his  sublime 
researches  on  the  star  depths,  254, 
257,  258;  his  boundless  energy  and 
enthusiasm,  259,  260;  his  nobility 
of  character,  260;  his  ability  to  search 
for  truth,  not  worldly  ends,  261; 
revolutionizes  making  of  telescopes, 
262;  his  ancestry  Protestant,  and 
traced  to  Moravia,  262,  263;  move- 
ment for  publication  of  his  collected 
works  started  by  See,  and  promoted 
by  Huggins,  268,  269,  270 

Hill,  Geo.  A.,  assistant  astronomer  at 
Naval  Observatory,  aids  in  removing 
piers  of  6-inch  transit  circle,  1901,  72 

Hill,  Dr.  G.  W.,  the  eminent  mathema- 
tician, doubted  wisdom  of  Dr.  See 
observing  double  stars,  62;  researches 
in  the  Lunar  Theory,  172;  stability  of 
satellites,  173 

Hinks,  Professor  A.  R.,  formerly  of 
Cambridge,  now  Gresham  lecturer, 
University  College,  London,  uses 
Professor  See's  measurements  of 
Eros  for  solar  parallax,  76 

Hipparchus,  famous  Greek  astrono- 
mer, Mr.  See  endeavors  to  locate  site 
of  library  and  museum  at  Alexan- 
dria, 51;  apparent  motions  of 
heavenly  bodies,  163,  166 

Hochstetter,  Professor  F.  Von,  report 
on  the  earthquake  and  sea  wave  at 
Arica,  utilized  by  Proctor,  146,  147 

Hollett,  Miss  Ann,  of  New  York  City, 
maiden  name  of  wife  of  Emanuel 
Sailor,  one  of  Professor  See's  maternal 
great  grand-mothers,  5 

Holmes,  O.  W.,  poet,  stanza  cited,  256; 
welcome  to  Dr.  Gould,  1886,  258,  259 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


287 


Hooke,  Dr.  {Robert,  proved  law  of 
gravity  for  special  case,  94 

Huddleston,  Miss  Helen,  boyhood 
teacher  of  Professor  See,  24 

Huggins,  Lady,  associated  with  Sir 
William  in  the  Atlas  of  Stellar  Spectra, 
273 

Huggins,  Sir  William,  founder  of  as- 
trophysics, with  Lady  Huggins  en- 
tertains Mr.  See  in  London,  52;  de- 
velops method  for  finding  motion  in 
line  of  sight,  1868, 59, 198 ;  his  taste  for 
beautiful  works  of  art,  85;  an  in- 
spiration in  his  study,  85;  adopts 
theory  of  earthquakes  developed  by 
See,  136;  founds  astrophysics  and 
welcomes  founding  of  cosmogony, 
160;  letters  to  Professor  See,  160, 
161;  discovers  chemical  elements  to 
be  uniform  everywhere,  187,  253; 
in  co-operation  with  Professor  See 
starts  movement  for  the  republica- 
tion  of  Collected  Scientific  Papers  of 
Sir  William  Herschel,  214,  219;  recog- 
nition of  See's  epoch-making  dis- 
coveries, 262;  promotes  publication 
of  Herschel's  collected  works  and 
notifies  Professor  See,  268-270;  his 
lamented  death  soon  after  the  re- 
publication  of  the  Herschel  works 
was  started,  269-270;  "the  Herschel 
of  the  Spectroscope,"  270;  his  im- 
pressive L'envoy  to  the  Atlas  of 
Stellar  Spectra  quoted,  273 

Hulbert,  Professor  E.  B.,  meets  Mr. 
See  in  Egypt  and  induces  him  to 
locate  in  Chicago,  53-54 

Humboldt,  A.  von,  his  Cosmos  pur- 
chased by  young  Mr.  See  at  age  of 
16,  29;  learns  Greek  at  age  of  19,  30; 
his  opinion  of  the  Greek  language, 
30;  classic  writing  of,  31;  awakens 
enthusiasm  of  Mr.  See,  35;  error  in 
his  views  on  disturbances  at  great 
depths  in  the  globe,  91,  92;  accepts 
doctrine  of  elevation  of  land  by  earth- 
quakes, 115;  his  remark  on  "the 
most  ancient  perceptible  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  matter,"  216 

Humboldt,  Wilhelm  von,  founder  of 
the  University  of  Berlin,  studies 
Greek,  30,  49;  introduces  classic 
spirit  into  the  University  of  Berlin, 
50 

Hussey,  Professor  W.  J.,  his  double- 
star  survey  at  La  Plata,  68; 

Huyghens,  eminent  Dutch  astronomer, 
adopts  Roemer's  discovery  of  the 
velocity  of  light,  249 


Huxley,  Professor  Thomas  H.,  English 
naturalist,  his  works  much  read  by 
M.  F.  See,  6 


INNES,  Mr.  R.  T.  A.,  observes  double 
stars  at  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  67,  68; 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II, 

247 

JACKSON,  Andrew,  President  of  U.S., 
1829-1837,  his  primitive  times,  12 

Jackson,  Stonewall,  Confederate  Gen- 
eral, Professor  See  named  in  honor  of, 
6 

Jacobi,  C.  G.  J.,  celebrated  German 
mathematician,  solves  restricted  prob- 
lem of  three  bodies,  1836,  172;  his 
integral,  173 

Jefferson,  Hon.  Booker,  Mrs.  T.  J.  J. 
See  a  grand-daughter  of,  81 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  third  President  of 
U.S.,  Professor  See  partially  named 
in  honor  of,  6 

Jenness,  Professor  A.  L.,  young  Mr. 
See's  superior  teacher,  educated  at 
Amherst,  24;  Principal  of  Mont- 
gomery City  High  School,  24,  25 

Jesuits,  persecution  by,  led  to  immigra- 
tion of  Adam  See  to  America,  2; 
Schwenkfelders  flee  to  Saxony,  Hol- 
land, England,  Pennsylvania,  2 

Jones,  Professor  J.  C.,  teaches  Mr.  See 
Latin  and  encourages  him  to  take  up 
Greek,  30,  32 

Jones,  Miss  Lillian,  early  teacher  of 
Professor  See,  25 

Johnson,  Ex-Senator,  Waldo  P.,  his 
speeches  heard  by  Noah  See,  16; 
his  remarks  on  Noah  See's  purchase 
of  land  in  Vernon  County,  Mo.,  25 

Jung,  Dr.  Franz  A.  R.,  eminent  Wash- 
ington physician,  Professor  See's 
medical  adviser,  79 

KAHRN,  Frau,  keeper  of  Pension  where 

young  Mr.  See  lived  at  Berlin,  46 
Kant,  Immanuel,  celebrated  German 

philosopher,  throwing  off  of  planets, 

188;    his  theories  abandoned,  225; 

on  space  and  time,  256 
Kapteyn,  Professor,  J.  C.,  of  Gron- 

ingen,  parallax  of  stars,  197 
Kaulbach,    German    painter,    Homer 

and  the  Greeks,  166 
Kay,  Rev.  Henry,  his  remarks  on  the 

promise  of  young  Mr.  See,  26 


288 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Keeler,  Professor  J.  E.,  photographs 
of  nebulae  at  Lick  Observatory,  163, 
168 

Kelvin,  Lord,  elegant  writer,  31;  his 
estimate  of  Dr.  See's  Researches, 
Vol.  I,  60,  61;  rigidity  of  the  earth, 
93;  method  for  determining  rigidity 
lacks  generality,  94;  shows  that 
earth  behaves  as  a  solid,  115, 
132;  adopts  theory  of  earthquakes 
developed  by  See,  136;  his  former 
views  on  rotation  of  the  earth  now 
inadmissible,  158,  237;  deceived  in 
cosmogony,  164;  supposed  exception- 
al origin  of  the  Moon,  179,  232;  his 
reasoning  on  the  age  of  the  earth 
vitiated  by  insecure  premises,  245 

Kepler,  Johann,  celebrated  German 
astronomer,  marks  epoch  in  astrono- 
my, 35;  notable  advances  since  made 
in  theory  of  comets,  162;  established 
laws  of  planetary  motions,  166,  249, 
250;  his  epoch  in  astronomy,  167; 
remarks  on  thinking  of  God's  thoughts 
after  Him,  256;  mentioned  by 
Holmes,  256,  258;  his  discoveries 
mainly  observational,  262 

Klptz,  Dr.  Otto,  of  Ottawa,  Canada, 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol. 
II,  247 

Knoblauch,  Professor  of  Mathematics 
at  Berlin,  47 

Knorre,  Professor  V.,  entrusts  Mr.  See 
with  9-inch  refractor  of  Royal  Ob- 
servatory at  Berlin,  47 

Kundt,  Professor  of  Physics  at  Berlin, 
teacher  of  Professor  See,  47 

LA  CANDAMINE,  French  .academician, 
on  attraction  of  Chimborazo,  1738, 
107 

Lagrange,  J.  L.,  celebrated  French 
mathematician,  167;  researches  on 
stability  of  solar  system,  240 

Laplace,  P.  S.,  famous  French  astrono- 
mer, elegant  writer,  31;  his  Mecani- 
que  Celeste  inspires  Mr.  See,  34; 
nebular  hypothesis  modified  by  Sir 
G.  H.  Darwin,  1879,  36;  his  grave 
visited  by  Dr.  See  on  way  to  Berlin, 
1889,  46;  Bowditch-translation  of 
his  Mtcanique  Celeste  saved  from 
fire  by  Dr.  See,  1897,  64;  investi- 
gates motions  of  comets  near  Jupiter, 
74;  his  premises  assumed  by  pre- 
vious investigators,  84;  his  law  of 
density  for  the  earth,  91;  his  theory 
of  cosmogony  vulnerable,  161;  de- 


ceived by  peculiar  circumstances, 
164;  remarks  on  Tycho's  lack  of 
intuition  into  causes,  166;  his  epoch 
in  astronomy,  167;  his  nebular 
hypothesis  abandoned,  168,  171, 190, 
225,  242;  throwing  off  of  planets, 
188;  believed  nebulae  to  be  figures 
of  equilibrium,  222;  discussion  on 
preservation  of  sidereal  system  with 
Herschel  and  Napoleon,  222,  223; 
his  time-honored  theories  abandoned, 
225,  233;  his  researches  on  the 
stability  of  the  solar  system,  240; 
French  pride  hurt  by  overthrow  of 
his  theories,  243 

Lassell,  the  Misses,  translators  of  the 
Life  of  Humboldt,  30 

Laves,  Dr.  Kurt,  his  advancement  at 
Chicago,  56;  the  work  at  Chicago 
divided  with  Moulton,  by  Dr.  See 
when  he  joined  the  Lowell  Observa- 
tory, 63 

Laws,  Dr.  S.  S.,  President  of  University 
of  Missouri,  meets  young  Mr.  See, 
but  does  not  encourage  him  in  the 
idea  of  a  scientific  career,  28;  com- 
plaints of  his  management  9f  the 
University,  37;  resigns  the  presidency 
of  the  university,  43 

Lawton,  Mr.  Geo.  K.,  student  of  Dr. 
See  at  Chicago,  58,  59 

Lehmann-Filhes,  Professor  R.,  one  of 
Mr.  See's  teachers  at  Berlin,  47; 
investigates  increase  of  central  mass, 
182;  shows  that  it  can  not  decrease 
eccentricity  of  orbit,  232 

Lens,  Miss  Rhetta,  boyhood  teacher  of 
Professor  See,  24 

Leonard,  Miss.  W.  L.,  Secretary  to  Pro- 
fessor Lowell,  63 

Leuschner,  Professor  A.  O.,  University 
of  California,  his  researches  on  the 
ellipticity  of  comet  orbits,  185 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  President  of  the 
United  States,  appoints  Rev.  Michael 
See  on  Sanitary  Commission,  3;  be- 
longs to  the  ages,  87 

Logan,  Mr.  Hamp,  a  young  man  killed 
near  Noah  See's  home  by  drunken 
soldiers  during  the  War,  8 

Long,  Hon.  Jphn  D.,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  appoints  Dr.  See  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  the  Navy,  70,  71 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  the  poet,  his  Psalm 
of  Life,  learned  by  Mr.  See  in  boy- 
hood, 18;  extracts  of  a  poem  cited, 
254 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


289 


Lovelace,  Mr.  Wm.,  a  former  student 
of  the  university,  gives  Mr.  See  a 
letter  to  Professor  Schweitzer,  28 

Lowell,  Professor  Percival,  founder  and 
Director  of  Lowell  Observatory, 
offers  Dr.  See  an  opportunity  to  sur- 
vey Southern  Double  Stars,  58-60, 62; 
joined  by  Dr.  See  at  Flagstaff,  63; 
site  of  Lowell  Observatory  described, 
64;  appreciation  of  by  the  people  of 
Arizona,  64;  illness  at  Mexico  inter- 
rupts plans,  67,  69;  employs  Mr. 
Sykes  to  remove  observatory,  69 

Ludendorff,  Professor  H.,  of  the  As- 
trophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam, 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II 
247 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  English  geologist, 
accepts  doctrine  of  elevation  of  land 
by  earthquakes,  115;  volume  in 
elevation  of  land  calculated  for 
Chilean  earthquake  of  1835,  126 

MAGNUS,     translator    of    Gomperz's 

"Greek  Thinkers"  189 
Mariscal,  Secretary  of  State  of  Mexico, 

with  President  Diaz  visits  Lowell 

Observatory,  68 
McKinley,  President  William,  appoints 

Dr.  See  Professor  of  Mathematics  in 

the  Navy,  70,  71 

McLaughlin,Thomas,Esquire,  Williams- 
burg,  Mo.,  observes  solar  eclipse  of 
1878  at  Noah  See's  home,  21 

Martin,  Mr.  Lawrence,  investigates 
earthquake  at  Yakutat  Bay,  Alaska, 
1899,  105,  124 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  English  philosopher, 
his  works  much  read  by  M.  F.  See,  6 

Milne,  Professor  J9hn,  his  map  of  earth- 
quake distribution,  123 

Mommsen,  Professor  Theodore,  Ger- 
man historian,  on  ancestry,  1 

Moravians,  Evangelists,  first  came  to 
Pennsylvania,  1734,  2 

Morton,  Senator  from  Ray  County,  Mo. 
1889,  recommends  changes  at  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri,  37 

Moulton,  Professor  F.  R.,  student  of 
Dr.  See  at  Chicago,  58, 59;  appointed 
assistant  at  University  of  Chicago 
on  Dr.  See's  sole  recommendation, 
63;  work  at  Chicago  divided  between 
Laves  and  Moulton  by  Dr.  See,  63; 
his  erroneous  reasoning  on  the  origin 
of  satellites,  173 


Myres,  Professor  J.  L.,  of  University  of 
Oxford,  travels  with  Mr.  See  in 
Greece,  51 

NAPOLEON,  First  Consul,  afterwards 
French  emperor,  his  interview  with 
Herschel  and  Laplace,  222,  223;  his 
remarks  on  genius,  264 

Newcomb,  Professor  Simon,  eminent 
American  astronomer,  remarks  on 
Professor  See's  name,  6;  elegant 
writer,  31;  address  at  dedication  of 
Yerkes  Observatory,  57;  his  vacant 
professorship  filled  by  Professor  See, 
71;  explosive  power  of  solar  matter 
compared  to  that  of  dynamite,  93: 
deceived  in  Cosmogony,  164;  esti- 
mates that  some  stars  are  a  million 
times  brighter  than  the  sun,  201; 
assumes  the  distance  of  remoter 
stars  "at  least  3,000  light-years," 
205;  distance  of  Herschel  stars 
"about  14,000  light-years,"  205; 
on  distances  of  stars  follows  Sir  John 
Herschel,  205;  life  on  other  worlds 
held  to  exist,  252 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  celebrated  English 
philosopher,  awakens  Mr.  See's 
enthusiasm,  35;  copy  of  Principia 
purchased  by  Mr.  See  in  1886,  34; 
his  epoch  in  astronomy,  35;  his 
sacrifices  to  Science,  86;  Thomson's 
poem  on,  87,  88,  272;  his  struggle 
against  injustice  and  the  tyranny  of 
a  king,  88;  his  rule  of  philosophy, 
99;  hints  at  contraction  theory  of 
the  earth,  129;  notable  advances 
since  made  in  theory  of  comets,  162; 
establishes  laws  of  the  heavenly 
motions,  166;  his  epoch  in  astrono- 
my, 167;  remarks  elliptical  character 
of  comet  orbits,  184-5;  establishes 
law  of  gravitation,  1687,  187,  249, 
250;  his  theory  that  comets  fall  into 
stars,  193;  his  remarks  that  the 
agency  operative  in  the  construction 
of  the  solar  system  was  "very  skilled 
in  mechanics  and  geometry,"  229, 
234 ;  his  remarks  on  the  Divine  Power 
indicated  by  the  motions  of  the 
planets,  235,  236;  his  inventive 
genius,  240,  265;  his  ability  to  search 
for  truth,  not  wordly  ends,  261 ;  his 
theoretical  conclusions  extended  by 
Herschel,  262;  Whewell's  description 
of  his  intellectual  character,  265; 
made  his  discoveries  "by  always 
thinking  about  them,"  266;  Halley's 
description  of  his  discoveries  as 
"almost  divine,"  267 


290 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Niebuhr,  eminent  German  historian, 
on  the  overrating  of  ancestry,  1 

ODELL,  H.  E.,  surgeon,  U.  S.  Navy,  his 
skillful  treatment  saves  life  of  Pro- 
fessor See,  82 

PEIRCE,  Professor  Benjamin,  his  fam- 
ous Lowell  lectures  of  1879,  70 

Pelletrean,  Wm.  S.,  sells  copy  of  Bow- 
ditch's  translation  of  Laplace's  MJ- 
canique  Celeste  to  Mr.  See  in  1887,  35 

Perrine,  Professor  Chas.  D.,  photo- 
graphs of  nebulae  at  Lick  Observa- 
tory, 163 

Phipp,  Miss  Mattie,  boyhood  teacher 
of  Professor  See,  24 

Pickering,  Professor  W.  H.,  suggests 
capture  of  Phoebe,  173 

Pickering,  Professor  E.  C.,  Director  of 
Harvard  College  Observatory,  investi- 
gates distribution  of  helium  stars, 
211;  estimates  fainter  stars  photo- 
graphed with  60-inch  reflector  at 
Pasadena  at  21st  magnitude,  211 

Pindar,  Greek  poet,  his  eagle-soaring 
flights,  88 

Plato,  celebrated  Greek  philosopher, 
his  habits  of  independence  and  free 
initiative,  vi;  Zeller  compared  to, 
48;  olive  groves  where  he  taught 
visited  by  Mr.  See,  51;  durability  of 
his  work,  87;  flourishing  at  time  of 
earthquake  which  destroyed  Helike, 
134-5;  qualifications  of  an  astrono- 
mer, 165;  The  Deity  always  geome- 
trizes,  166,  195,  196,  229,  234;  his 
portrait  on  Professor  See's  book- 
plate, 166;  his  remarks  on  the  origin 
of  the  planets  at  a  great  distance, 
235,  236;  associated  with  Socrates, 
256 

Pliny,  the  Roman  naturalist,  adopts 
Aristotle's  theory  of  earthquakes, 
99;  destruction  of  cities  by  earth- 
quakes, 100;  eruptions  in  the  sea, 
121 

Poincare,  Professor  H.,  the  eminent 
French  mathematician,elegant  writer, 
31 ;  reasoning  on  geodesy  and  density 
of  matter  in  the  earth,  150,  151; 
adopts  the  capture  theory,  162; 
letter  to  Professor  See,  162;  de- 
ceived in  Cosmogony,  164;  advances 
Cosmogony,  168;  his  profound  re- 
searches, 172;  his  theory  of  fluid 
fission,  195,  230;  his  Lectures  on 
Cosmogony,  1911,  243;  abandons 


theory  of  Laplace  and  adopts  that 
of  See,  243;  impression  of  See's  Re- 
searches, Vol.  II,  247;  recognition  of 
See's  epoch-making  discoveries,  262; 
student  of  principles,  not  of  isolated 
facts,  266;  wonders  at  the  discoveries 
of  See,  271 ;  the  greatest  mathema- 
tician since  Archimedes,  271 

Poisson,  S.  D.,  eminent  French  mathe- 
matician, his  researches  on  the 
stability  of  the  solar  system,  240 

Poor,  Professor  C.  L.,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, impression  of  See's  Researches 
Vol.  II,  247 

Poseidon,  god  of  the  sea,  "the  Earth- 
shaker,  "  revered  by  the  Greeks,  97, 98 

Pratt,  J.  H.,  English  mathematician, 
and  geodesist,  his  reasoning  on  the 
density  of  the  matter  under  the 
ocean,  plains  and  mountains,  150, 
151 

Praxitelles,  celebrated  Greek  sculptor, 
his  statue  of  Hermes  at  Olympia, 
visited  by  Mr.  See,  1891,  51 

Proctor,  Professor  R.  A.,  his  account 
of  the  earthquake  and  sea  wave  at 
Arica,  1868,  146,  149;  remarks  that 
Herschel  worked  alone  on  great  prob- 
lems of  the  universe,  220 

Ptolemy,  famous  Greek  astronomer,  site 
of  his  labors  at  Alexandria  examined 
by  Mr.  See,  51;  his  system  of  as- 
tronomy, 129;  apparent  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  166;  his  poem 
on  the  sublimity  of  astronomy,  241» 
278 

RANKE,    eminent    German    historian, 

on  the  overrating  of  ancestry,  1 
Ranyard,  Mr.  A.  C.,  astronomer  in 

London,    entertains   Mr.    See,    52; 

finds  distance  of  remote  stars  "less 

than  70,000  light-years,"  205 
Rayleigh,  Lord,  his  remarks  on  the 

silent  disposition  of  Helmholtz,  47 
Ritchey,  Professor  G.  W.,  opportunity 

for  opened  by  starting  of  Yerkes 

Observatory,  57 
Roberts,  Dr.  A.  W.,  Lovedale,  South 

Africa,  impression  of  See's  Researches 

Vol.  II,  247 
Roemer,    Olaus,    Danish   astronomer, 

discovers  the  velocity  of  light,  1675, 

249 
Rollins,  Major  J.  H.,  "Father  of  the 

University,"  or  rather  "Father  of 

the  College,"  38 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


291 


Rowell,  librarian  J.  C,  University  of 
California,  promotes  Professor  See's 
studies  of  the  works  of  Herschel,  269 

Rowland,  Professor  H.  A.,  visited  by 
Mr.  See  at  Baltimore  on  the  way  to 
Europe,  45 

SAGE,  Dr.  John,  purchases  copy  of 
Bowditch's  Translation  of  Laplace's 
M<!canique  Celeste,  1839,  secured  by 
Mr.  See  in  1887,  35 

Sailor,  Emanuel,  second  son  of  John 
Sailor,  with  wife  and  three  sons  settle 
in  Mo.,  in  1824,  5;  had  married  Ann 
Hollett,  widow  of  Dr.  James  Geary 
of  Ohio,  5 

Sailor,  James,  son  of  Emanuel,  and 
grandfather  of  Professor  See,  came 
to  Mo.  in  1824,  5;  his  brothers  John 
and  Thomas,  5 

Sailor,  John,  an  Englishman,  settles 
in  Va.  before  the  Revolution  and 
fights  in  that  war,  5 ;  moved  to  Mont- 
gomery Co.,  Ky.,  about  1790,  5;  a 
skilled  machinist,  names  of  his  family 
of  six,  5 

Sailor,  John  T.,  brother  of  Mrs.  Noah 
See,  aids  her  during  the  War,  10 

Sailor,  Miss  Mary  A.,  marries  Noah 
See  and  raises  a  family  of  nine  chil- 
dren, 5;  Professor  See  the  sixth  child 
and  third  son,  6 
(continued  under  See,  Mrs.  Mary  A.) 

Schiaparelli,  Professor  G.  V.,  his  pre- 
diction that  Dr.  See's  Researches 
would  mark  the  third  great  epoch  in 
Double  Star  Astronomy  since  those  of 
W.  Herschel  and  W.  Struye,  61; 
welcomes  founding  of  New  Science  of 
Cosmogony,  161;  recognition  of  See's 
epoch-making  discoveries,  262 

Schlesinger,  Professor,  Frank,  of  Pitts- 
burg,  on  the  parallax  of  stars,  197 

Schwartz,  Dr.  H.  A.,  Professor  of 
Mathematics  at  Berlin,  inspires  Mr. 
See  in  Mathematics,  47 

Schweitzer,  Professor  Paul,  first  meets 
Mr.  See,  28;  his  fine  Department  of 
Chemistry,  33;  wished  young  Mr. 
See  to  be  a  chemist,  33;  formerly 
assistant  to  Rose,  friend  of  Hum- 
boldt,  49 

Schwenkfelders,  immigrated  in  1734 
from  Prussian  Silesia,  2;  persecuted 
by  Jesuits,  2;  they  resist  conversion; 
2;  statement  of  Robert  Barclay  as  to 
congregations  in  Pa.,  1875,  2 


See,  Adam,  founder  of  family  in  Ameri- 
ca, 2;  a  Protestant  and  Baptist,  2; 
fled  from  Prussian  Silesia,  1734,  2, 
263;  with  the  colony  of  Schwenk- 
felders, 2;  his  wife  named  Barbara, 
2;  a  younger  brother  of  Michael 
Frederick  See,  2;  persecuted  in 
Prussian  Silesia,  2;  used  German 
Bibles  in  family  to  third  generation, 
2;  prominent  planter  in  Hardy 
County,  Va.,  3;  ransoms  his  nephew 
John  See  from  the  Indians,  3;  his 
son  George  See  fights  with  John  See 
in  War  of  the  Revolution,  3 

See,  Adam,  son  of  George  See,  and 
grandson  of  the  first  Adam  See, 
eminent  lawyer,  and  Senator  at 
Richmond  during  War  of  1812,  4; 
member  of  Virginia  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1829,  4 

See,  Charles  Michael,  of  Alma,  111., 
takes  up  study  of  the  family  history 
about  1880,  at  suggestion  of  Judge 
Silas  Bryan,  father  of  Hon.  W.  J. 
Bryan,  3 

See,  Edward  E.,  youngest  brother  of 
Professor  See,  was  a  promising  stu- 
dent under  Dr.  Ayers,  and  has  taste 
for  art,  7 

See,  Mrs.  Frances  Graves,  wife  of  Pro- 
fessor See,  her  family,  81;  grand- 
daughter of  Hon.  Booker  Jefferson, 
81;  her  simple  home  life  at  Mare 
Island,  81 ;  her  experience  as  teacher, 
82;  speaks  Spanish  fluently,  82; 
her  devotion  to  Professor  See  in  his 
critical  illness  of  1909,  82;  Professor 
See's  acknowledgment  to,  82,  83; 
loss  of  infant  son  and  illness  follow- 
ing, 83 

See,  George,  son  of  first  Adam  See, 
grew  up  with  John  See,  fought  in  the 
Revolution,  3;  married  Jemima 
Harness  and  raised  family  of  nine 
children,  3;  names  of  his  children,  3; 
killed  by  lightning  with  son  Charles 
while  stacking  hay  in  1791  or  1794,  4 

See,  Hon.  George  W.,  brother  of  Pro- 
fessor See,  academic  and  law  student 
at  University  of  Missouri,  7;  active 
in  public  affairs,  7;  Representative 
of  Montgomery  County  in  the  State 
Legislature,  7;  friend  and  adviser  of 
Speaker  Champ  Clark,  7;  designated 
Presidential  Elector  at  large  by  State 
Central  Committee,  1912,  7 

See,  Hon.  Jacob,  brother  of  Noah  See, 
a  leading  citizen,  sheriff,  and  Repre- 


292 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


sentative  of  Montgomery  County, 
Mo.,  7;  raiser  of  fine  stock,  and  of 
celebrated  ox  "Stonewall  Jackson," 
weighing  4,300  pounds,  7 

See,  John,  captured  by  the  Indians  at 
age  of  5,  3;  ransomed  by  his  uncle 
Adam  See,  3;  grew  up  with  his 
cousin  George  See,  3;  both  fought 
in  the  Revolution,  John  badly  wound- 
ed at  Brandy  wine,  pensioned,  3; 
gives  account  of  early  history  of 
family  to  his  grandson,  Rev.  Michael 
See,  3;  died  at  Peoria,  111.,  at  age  of 
90,3 

See,  John,  a  brother  of  Noah  See,  his 
wife  a  first  cousin  of  Jacob  Stewart, 
who  was  the  tried  friend  of  Noah 
See's  family  during  the  war,  22 

See,  Lucy  Elizabeth,  talented  child, 
little  sister  of  Professor  See,  died  at 
age  of  2>£  years,  6 

See,  Mrs.  Margaret  (Stewart),  wife  of 
John  See,  the  brother  of  Noah  See, 
and  a  first  cousin  of  Jacob  Stewart, 
22 

See,  Mrs.  Mary  A.,  mother  of  Professor 
See,  born  Jan.  14,  1832,  12;  her 
ancestry,  5;  noted  for  force  of 
character,  5;  greatly  beloved  by 
whole  community,  5;  universally 
regarded  as  a  noble  and  good  woman, 
10;  managed  farm  as  well  as  house- 
hold during  the  war,  9-10;  refuses 
to  allow  ox  to  be  killed  and  orders 
the  soldiers  off  the  place,  10;  depre- 
dations of  the  soldiers,  10;  her  educa- 
tion at  Loutre  school  house,  12;  very 

•  fond  of  trees,  24 

See,  Rev.  Michael,  grandson  of  John 
See,  3;  obtains  early  history  of 
family  from  John  See  in  his  old  age, 
3;  appointed  by  President  Lincoln 
on  the  Sanitary  Commission,  3 

See,  Michael,  son  of  George  See,  and 
father  of  Noah  See,  served  in  War  of 
1812,  4;  married  Catherine  Baker, 
and  raised  a  family  of  nine  children, 
record  of  their  names,  4;  moved  to 
Randolph  County,  Va.,  about  1795, 
4;  follows  his  son,  Noah  See,  to 
Missouri  in  1838,  4;  dies  in  1857 
very  highly  respected,  4 

See,  Michael  Frederick,  came  to  Amer- 
ica, 1734,  2,  263;  his  wife  named 
Catherine,  2;  first  settled  in  Bucks 
Co.,  Pa.,  but  moved  to  Va.,  1745,  3; 
killed  in  Greenbrier  Massacre,  July 
17,  1763,  3;  his  wife  and  family 
captured  by  the  Indians  and  carried 
to  Chillicothe,  Ohio.  3 


See,  Millard  Filmore,  eldest  brother  of 
Professor  See,  great  reader  of  scien- 
tific literature,  6;  well  read  in  law  and 
public  administration,  6;  father  of 
Russell  See,  civil  engineer  in  U.  S. 
Reclamation  Service,  6 

See,  Noah,  father  of  Professor  See, 
obtains  authentic  data  on  early  his- 
tory of  family  from  Hon.  Charles 
Michael  See,  3;  born  Sept.  19,  1815, 
in  Randolph  Co.,  Va.,  4;  youngest 
of  nine  children  and  the  most  talented, 
4;  visits  Missouri  on  horseback  in 
1837  and  settles  in  Montgomery 
County,  4;  educated  at  Beverly,  Va., 
and  trained  as  a  cabinet-maker, 
surveyor,  civil  engineer  and  archi- 
tect, 4;  serves  faithfully  as  bridge 
commissioner  for  30  years,  4;  by 
natural  abilities  and  legitimate  in- 
dustry becomes  a  wealthy  and  in- 
fluential citizen,  5 ;  marries  Miss  Mary 
A.  Sailor,  Oct.  18,  1853,  and  raises  a 
family  of  nine  children,  record  of 
their  names,  5-6;  owned  two  or  three 
slaves  before  the  war,  8;  Southern 
sympathizer  and  persecuted  during 
the  war,  losing  property  worth  $1,600, 
8-9;  worked  as  carpenter  on  block 
house  when  military  prisoner  in 
Danville,  9;  when  in  hiding,  like 
Daniel  Boone  in  his  conflicts  with 
the  Indians,  meditates  on  the  Deity, 
9;  one  of  the  largest  land  holders  in 
northeast  Mo.,  14;  journeyed  to 
Palmyra,  by  the  stars  at  night,  15; 
settles  on  the  prairie,  in  1852,  14; 
purchases  land  on  Loutre  from  Philip 
Cobb,  in  1837,  15;  names  sons  after 
presidents,  but  dislikes  politics,  15; 
twice  elected  County  Surveyor,  15; 
bridge  inspections,  surveying,  politi- 
cal meetings,  16;  a  great  admirer 
of  Henry  Clay,  16;  absent  from  home 
on  business,  16;  only  country  schools 
for  his  children,  16;  T.  J.  J.  See  goes 
to  University,  16;  "good  in  figures" 
and  teaches  T.  J.  J.  See  arithmetic, 
17;  his  description  of  the  great  me- 
teor of  Jan.  1,  1877,  20;  observed 
without  alarm  star  shower  of  Nov. 
12,  1833,  20;  falls  and  injures  foot, 
moves  to  large  place  of  920  acres  on 
Elkhorn,  his  friend  Jacob  Stewart  of 
war  times  on  visit,  22;  his  poor 
opinion  of  the  legal  profession,  25; 
buys  land  in  Southwestern  Missouri, 
his  family  well  provided  for,  25; 
gratified  at  scholastic  record  of  his 
son,  T.  J.  J.  See,  44-45;  failing  health 
and  death,  Feb.  9,  1890,  44-45; 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


293 


special  provision  in  his  will  for  the 
education  of  T.  J.  J.  See  in  Europe, 
44 

See,  Randolph  E.,  first  cousin  of  Pro- 
fessor See,  Sheriff  of  Montgomery 
County,  Mo.,  8;  Marshall  of  State 
Supreme  Court,  8;  Chief  Assistant 
Warden  of  Missouri  Penitentiary 
under  Governor  Folk,  8;  heroic  con- 
duct in  preventing  escape  of  prisoners 
8;  his  widow  voted  $2,000.00  by  the 
State  Legislature,  8 

See,  Robert  E.  Lee,  surveyor  and  fann- 
er, 6 

See,  Russell,  civil  engineer,  U.  S.  Recla- 
mation Service,  6 

See,  S.  C.,  prosperous  farmer,  6 

See,  Professor  T.  J.  J.,  descended  from 
Adam  See,  who  was  born  in  Prussian 
Silesia,  2;  his  ancestry  of  sturdiest 
kind,  2;  named  in  honor  of  Stone- 
wall Jackson,  6;  Professor  New- 
comb's  remarks  on  the  name  Thomas 
Jefferson  Jackson,  6;  third  son  and 
sixth  child  in  family  of  nine,  all 
talented,  6;  three  of  his  brothers  of 
scientific  turn  of  mind,  6;  born  at 
the  "Prairie  Place,"  on  393d  anni- 
versary of  birth  of  C9pernicus,  Feb. 
19,  1866,  8-10;  a  quiet  child,  early 
displaying  inquiring  disposition,  11; 
when  not  more  than  two  years  of 
age  counts  the  leaves  on  the  trees, 
the  wild  geese  flying  overhead,  and 
the  stars  at  night,  speculates  on  the 
Moon;  every  inch  a  natural  philoso- 
pher, 11;  observes  and  is  frightened 
by  the  darkness  during  total  solar 
eclipse  of  Aug.  7,  1869,  11;  first  at- 
tended school  at  age  of  six,  letter 
from  his  earliest  teacher,  Professor 
Benjamin  Elliott,  12;  had  method- 
ical habits,  and  a  prodigious  mem- 
ory, and  was  accustomed  to  recite 
poetry  at  school,  13;  the  studies  in- 
cluded in  the  country  schools  he  at- 
tended, 16;  solves  difficult  problem 
in  Ray's  Arithmetic,  17;  early  mem- 
orizes Longfellow's  Psalm  of  Life, 
17;  of  shy  but  proud  disposition  as 
a  child,  19;  took  earnest  view  of  life 
and  made  firm  resolutions,  19;  ob- 
serves the  great  meteor  of  Jan.  1, 
1877,  20;  observes  the  solar  eclipse 
of  July  28,  1878,  20;  fond  of  fishing 
in  Loutre  Creek,  after  hard  work  on 
farm,  21;  nature  of  genius  and  dis- 
covery, defined  by  Professor  See,  21; 
observes  tornado  on  Loutre,  Jan.  1, 
1876,  22-23;  from  childhood  fond  of 


trees,  and  devises  means  for  increasing 
their  symmetry  and  beauty  when  at 
church,  23-24;  missed  school  in  the 
winter  of  1882-3;  plans  for  attending 
Montgomery  City  School,  24;  list  of 
his  teachers  from  1872  to  1882,  24; 
instructed  by  Professor  A.  L.  Jenness 
and  Miss  Lillian  Jones  at  Mont- 
gomery City,  25;  some  jealousy  due 
to  his  advantages  over  the  older 
children,  25;  always  a  most  indus- 
trious and  efficient  worker,  gains  his 
father's  support,  26;  nearly  six  feet 
in  height  at  17,  but  poorly  trained  in 
comparison  with  town  boys,  26; 
purchases  Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  in 
Astronomy,  and  delivers  original 
composition  on  the  Science,  his  high 
promise  remarked  by  Rev.  Henry 
Kay,  26;  stands  first  in  the  Mont- 
gomery City  School,  27-28;  original 
talent  for  art  remarked  by  Professor 
Diehl,  sketches  great  comet  of  1882, 
27;  makes  preliminary  visit  to  Uni- 
versity, 28;  interest  in  physical 
geography  awakened  by  Benjamin 
Elliott,  1877-8,  and  he  acquires  Hum- 
boldt's  Cosmos  in  1882,  at  the  age  of 
16,  29;  meets  Mr.  Wardner,  from 
whom  he  purchased  the  Cosmos,  29; 
early  distinguishes  himself  in  geom- 
etry, and  finally  masters  algebra, 
29-30;  believes  that  mathematics  is 
an  easy  subject  when  properly  taught, 
30;  enters  on  the  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek  in  the  19th  year  of  his  age,  30; 
firm  advocate  of  classics  for  men  of 
science,  31;  called  the  "Humboldt 
of  the  University,"  31;  acquires 
elegant  style  of  writing,  31;  in  spirit 
a  Hellenist,  31-32;  breaks  records  of 
University  in  chemistry,  33;  espe- 
cially inspired  by  Smith  and  Schweit- 
zer, 33;  finds  copy  of  Bowditch's 
translation  of  Laplace's  Mecanique 
Celeste,  34;  purchases  copy  of  New- 
ton's Principia,  1886,  and  studies  it 
zealously,  34;  purchases  copy  of 
Bowditch's  translation  of  Laplace's 
Mecanique  Celeste,  1887,  35;  his 
enthusiasm  over  Laplace's  Mecani- 
que  Celeste  leads  him  to  become  an 
astronomer,  35;  very  active  in  Ath- 
enaean  Literary  Society,  35;  actu- 
ally in  charge  of  Observatory  while 
an  undergraduate  in  1887-9,  36;  ob- 
serves double  stars,  planets,  comets, 
prominences,  sunspots,  and  finds 
latitude,  36;  writes  undergraduate 
thesis  on  "Origin  of  Binary  Stars," 
and  wins  Missouri  Astronomical 


294 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Medal,  36;  stands  first  in  University, 
but  of  positive  character,  and  others 
occasionally  more  popular  with  the 
multitude,  because  See  belonged  to 
Greek  Fraternity,  37;  takes  leading 
part  in  reform  of  university  in  1889, 
37-38 ;  graduates  at  head  of  class,  with 
highest  honors,  39-42;  returns  home, 
and  finds  father  in  failing  health,  44; 
proceeds  to  Berlin,  via  Washington, 
Baltimore,  Princeton,  New  York, 
London,  Paris,  45-46;  toneliness  on 
his  arrival  at  Berlin,  his  residence 
established,  46;  interviews  his 
future  teachers,  Weierstrass,  Fuchs, 
Foerster,  Helmholtz,  47;  in  charge 
of  9-inch  telescope  of  Royal  Observa- 
tory, observing  till  daylight,  47-48; 
spread  of  his  fame  in  the  university 
and  to  other  countries,  48;  his  exam- 
ination for  Doctor's  degree,  49;  in- 
spiration afforded  by  Zeller,  and 
visits  to  Humboldt's  country  place, 
49-50;  classic  spirit  of  Berlin,  visits  to 
museums  to  study  art,  50;  journeys 
to  Italy,  Egypt,  Greece,  50-52;  experi- 
ences earthquake  at  Pyrgos  on  the 
visit  to  Olympia,  51 ;  visits  England, 
friendships  with  eminent  men  of 
Science,  52;  obtains  Doctor's  degree, 
and  speaks  German  fluently  in  In- 
augural Discourse,  52;  immediately 
returns  to  America,  how  he  came  to 
locate  at  Chicago,  53-54;  plans  high- 
class  work  in  Astronomy  at  the  new 
University,  55;  starts  building  of 
Yerkes  Observatory  by  cutting  down 
inflated  budget,  56;  the  starting  of 
the  Yerkes  Observatory  beneficial 
to  various  persons,  57;  Dr.  See  not 
rewarded  at  Chicago,  but  by  Presi- 
dent McKinley  at  Washington,  57; 
his  work  stood  high  at  Chicago,  but 
he  had  only  the  rank  of  instructor, 
declined  offer  of  assistant  professor- 
ship, 58;  works  in  co-operation  with 
Burnham  on  double  stars  for  three 
years,  establishing  method  of  testing 
Newtonian  Law,  1895,  58-59;  9b- 
serves  double  stars  at  McCormick 
and  Washburn  Observatories  in  1895, 
and  finishes  Volume  I  of  the  Re- 
searches early  in  1896,  59;  University 
of  Chicago  defaults  on  agreement  to 
print  the  Researches,  Vol.  I,  and  Dr. 
See  issues  it  himself,  59;  Lord  Kel- 
vin's estimate  of  the  Researches,  Vol. 
I,  60;  Schiaparelli's  prediction  that 
Dr.  See's  Researches  would  constitute 
the  third  great  epoch  since  those  of 
W.  Herschel  and  W.  Struve,  61;  joins 


Lowell  Observatory  to  observe  South- 
ern double  stars,  62;  influenced  in 
his  plans  by  example  of  the  two  Her- 
schels,  62;  suffers  mild  attack  of 
typhoid  fever,  June,  1896,  63;  loses 
valuable  library  and  other  property 
by  fire,  Sept.  14,  1897,  but  saves 
records  and  Bowditch's  translation 
of  Laplace,  64;  his  method  of  sweep- 
ing for  double  stars,  65;  the  work 
extended  throughout  the  night  and 
difficult,  65-66;  some  of  the  new 
stars  discovered,  and  the  types  of 
double  stars,  66;  earlier  work  of  Sir 
John  Herschel,  1834-1838,  67;  works 
in  cordial  relations  with  Mr.  Innes  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  67;  his  plans 
interrupted  by  illness  of  Lowell,  be- 
comes Professor  at  the  Naval  Observ- 
atory, Washintgon,  67;  stimulating 
effects  of  Dr.  See's  work,  67;  Sir 
David  GillXappraisement  of  it,  67-68 ; 
aids  in  rebuilding  Lowell  Observa- 
tory at  Mexico  City,  69;  ascends 
Popocatepetl,  69;  lectures  on  side- 
real astronomy  at  Lowell  Institute, 
Bpston,  1899,  69;  propounds  doc- 
trine of  expulsion  of  dust  from  stars 
under  repulsive  forces,  70;  consider- 
ed for  and  appointed  to  professorship 
of  mathematics  in  the  navy  by  Presi- 
dent McKinley,  70-71;  surprised  by 
Secretary  Long's  announcement  of 
his  appointment,  70;  assigned  duty 
at  Naval  Observatory,  Washington, 
and  occupied  with  meridian  work,  71 ; 
recommends  removal  of  piers  of  6- 
inch  transit  circle,  72;  observes 
satellite  of  Neptune  and  discovers 
belts  on  planet,  1899,  72;  in  charge 
of  26-inch  equatorial  telescope  of 
Naval  Observatory,  72;  systematic 
measurement  of  many  satellites,  73, 
74;  investigates  constants  of  irradi- 
ation by  new  methods,  73;  results 
generally  accepted  by  astronomers, 
74;  inquiry  into  the  method  by  Lord 
Kelvin,  1902,  74;  his  satellite  meas- 
ures used  by  Dyson,  Bergstrand 
and  Struve,  74 ;  his  work  commended 
by  Callandreau,  Schiaparelli,  Burn- 
ham,  Barnard  and  Struve,  75;  aids 
in  improving  personnel  of  Naval  Ob- 
servatory, 75;  works  very  hard  and 
finally  becomes  ill,  75;  his  double 
star  observations  and  micrometer 
researches,  76;  observations  of  Eros 
for  parallax  of  Sun  leads  to  good 
result,  76;  eminent  success  of  his 
work  at  Washington,  77;  his  illness 
at  the  naval  academy,  78;  sympa- 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


295 


thetic  method  in  the  teaching  of  mid- 
shipmen, 78;  invents  new  kind  of 
whole  wheat  bread  which  restores 
his  health,  December,  1904,  79;  en- 
ters upon  unparalleled  career  of  dis- 
covery at  Mare  Island,  80;  by  re- 
searches just  made  on  internal  con- 
stitution of  planets  is  enabled  to 
recognize  the  fallacy  in  the  old  theory 
of  earthquakes,  1906,  80;  lays  new 
foundations  for  Cosmogony,  1908, 
80,  81 ;  measures  the  depth  of  Milky 
Way,  1911,  80,  81;  confirms  and 
extends  Herschel's  theory  of  the 
globular  star  clusters,  1912,  80,  81; 
married  to  Miss  Frances  Graves, 
June  18,  1907,  81;  his  simple  home 
life  at  Mare  Island,  81;  deep  grief 
over  loss  of  infant  son,  July  28,  1909, 
81;  barely  survives  violent  attack 
of  appendicitis,  Jan.,  1909,  82;  re- 
covery attributed  to  life-long  habits 
of  total  abstinence  from  liquors  or 
tobacco  in  any  form,  82;  works  while 
everyone  else  sleeps,  83;  labor  of 
1909  in  finishing  the  Researches,  Vol. 
II,  compared  to  Newton's  writing  of 
the  Prindpia,  1685-6,  83;  the  great 
difficulty  in  establishing  the  Science 
of  Cosmogony,  84 ;  his  outdoor  habits 
of  life  in  California,  84;  visits  Yose- 
mite  Valley  and  the  big  trees,  84; 
his  enthusiasm  for  fine  paintings,  and 
the  inspiration  they  afford,  84,  85; 
the  new  Sciences  of  Cosmogony  and 
Geogony  developed  at  Mare  Island, 
84;  Greek  type  of  mind  recognized 
in  college  days  by  Professor  Fleet, 
85;  like  Sir  William  Huggins,  he 
derives  inspiration  from  beautiful 
works  of  art,  85;  dares  to  break 
away  from  beaten  paths  in  scientific 
work,  85;  never  disturbed  by  out- 
breaks of  jealousy,  86;  durability 
of  his  discoveries,  87;  the  "Newton 
of  Cosmogony,"  88;  never  shrinks 
hard  work  nor  disagreeable  duty,  88; 
begins  work  at  Mare  Island  before 
recovering  health,  89;  as  he  had  no 
adequate  instruments  for  observa- 
tional work,  he  wisely  begins  mathe- 
matical researches  on  internal  con- 
stitution of  heavenly  bodies,  90;  how 
he  subdivided  the  problem  into  three 
parts,  90;  description  of  the  pressure 
at  the  centre  of  the  Earth,  91;  finds 
errors  in  views  of  Humboldt  respect- 
ing disturbances  deep  down  in  the 
globe,  92;  physical  conditions  in  the 
interior  of  Sun,  93;  the  rigidity  of 
the  Earth  equal  to  that  of  nickel 


steel,  94;  triumph  of  his  discoveries, 
95;  analogy  of  his  discoveries  with 
those  of  Archimedes  and  Galileo,  96; 
his  "Outline  of  the  New  Theory  of 
Earthquakes,"  97-119;  his  paper  on 
"How  the  Mountains  are  made  in 
the  Depths  of  the  Sea,"  120-136;  his 
paper  on  the  "Origin  of  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains  and  Plateau  of  Tibet, ' ' 
137-159;  his  address  on  "The  Evolu- 
tion of  the  Starry  Heavens,"  160- 
196;  his  paper  entitled  "Determina- 
tion of  the  Depth  of  the  Milky  Way," 
197,  213;  his  address  on  "The  Her- 
schel-See  Researches  on  the  origin 
of  Clusters  and  on  the  Breaking  up 
of  the  Milky  Way,  under  the  Cluster- 
ing Power  of  Universal  Gravitation," 
214,  224;  improves  Herschel's  meth- 
od for  measuring  the  depth  of  the 
Milky  Way,  1909-1911,  199;  esti- 
mates distance  of  the  remotest  stars 
at  4,500,000  light-years,  205;  first 
to  restore  the  great  distances  of  re- 
mote stars  used  by  Herschel,  205; 
calculates  coefficient  of  extinction  of 
light  in  space,  208;  tests  and  verifies 
Herschel's  method  for  finding  depth 
of  Milky  Way  by  the  study  of 
clusters,  1911,  210;  calculates  that 
12-foot  reflector  would  show  stars 
at  a  distance  of  5  or  10  million  light- 
years,  1911,  213;  in  co-operation 
with  Huggins,  starts  the  successful 
movement  for  republication  of  Her- 
schel's collected  works,  214-224;  his 
name  coupled  with  that  of  Herschel 
to  indicate  improved  modern  theory 
of  star  depths,  214-215;  his  "  Dynam- 
ical Theory  of  Clusters,"  215-218; 
proves  that  the  clustering  power 
noticed  by  Herschel  is  Newtonian 
gravitation,  221;  his  "Conclusions 
drawn  from  the  New  Science  of  Cos- 
mogony," 225-241;  abandons  theory 
of  fluid  fission,  230;  statement  of  his 
fundamental  law  of  the  firmament, 
230;  his  researches  verifying  the  law 
of  gravitation,  238;  the  Herschel- 
See  theory  of  the  depth  of  the  galaxy, 
239;  shakes  Laplace's  theory  of 
Cosmogony  to  its  foundations,  242; 
finds  premises  used  by  Darwin  in- 
secure, 244;  favorable  reception  of 
his  revolutionary  work,  248;  holds 
that  life  is  general  phenomenon  in 
nature,  251-255;  his  extension  of  the 
inspiration  of  Aristotle,  256;  desig- 
nated the  "American  Herschel,"  by 
Speaker  Clark,  257-268;  his  address 
at  Montgomery  City,  Mo.,  May  4, 


296 


INDEX   OF   NAMES 


1911,  258;  nominated  for  the  Hall  of 
Fame  by  the  Kansas  City"  Star"  259; 
parallel  of  his  career  with  that  of 
Herschel,  257-260;  his  well  known 
independence  and  freedom  from 
rings  and  their  influence,  260;  his 
deep  intuition  into  physical  truth, 
262;  the  creator  of  a  new  science, 
"the  Newton  of  C9smogony,"  262- 
268;  analogy  of  his  ancestry  with 
that  of  Herschel,  263;  shows  that 
America  is  now  first  in  Science,  264; 
not  a  student  of  isolated  facts,  but  of 
the  underlying  relations  of  all  facts, 
265;  establishes  two  new  sciences, 
Cosmogony  and  Geogony,  267;  his 
discoveries  give  America  the  first 
place  in  Astronomy,  Cosmogony,  and 
Geogony,  267;  details  of  the  move- 
ment for  the  publication  of  Herschel's 
collected  works,  268-270;  his  almost 
miraculous  recovery  in  1909,  270; 
four  of  his  most  brilliant  achieve- 
ments without  a  parallel  since  the  age 
of  Newton,  270;  sheds  lustre  on  his 
country  and  his  age,  271;  the  im- 
pressions made  on  observers  during 
his  youth,  273;  Mr.  Van  Trump's 
prophecy  of  1887;  Rosenberger's 
prophecy  of  1893,  273;  public  ban- 
quet at  University  of  Missouri,  Jan. 
20,  1898,  274;  estimate  of  his  leader- 
ship by  Marbut,  274;  remarks  on 
the  significance  of  his  discoveries  by 
Professor  W.  B.  Smith,  of  Tulane 
University,  276,  277 
Seeliger,  Professor  H.  von,  of  Munich, 
concludes  that  the  absorption  of 
light  in  space  is  small,  209 ;  impression 
of  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II,  247 

Senate  of  Rome,  sacrifices  to  marine 
divinities,  98 

Shea,  Professor  D.  W.,  travels  with  Mr. 
See  in  Italy,  50 

Siculus,  Diodorus,  historian,  his  ac- 
count of  the  Achaian  earthquake  of 
373  B.C.,  98 

Smith,  Dr.  W.  B.,  writes  of  Professor 
See's  enthusiasm  for  Greek  things, 
31;  inspires  See,  Defoe  and  other 
students,  32;  holds  chair  of  physics, 
1885-87,  also  mathematics,  1887-89, 
32;  universality  of  his  learning  and 
inspiration,  33;  in  charge  of  Mathe- 
matics and  Astronomy,  36;  his  trans- 
lation of  Ptolemy's  poem,  241;  his 
impression  of  See's  Researches,  Vol. 
II,  247 


Smyth,  Captain,  R.  N.,  mentions  the 
election  of  Sir  J.  Herschel  as  President 
Royal  Astron.  Society,  1847,  261 

Socrates,  mentioned  with  Plato,  256 

Spangenberg,   endeavours   to   convert 

Schwenkfelders,  2 
Spencer,  Herbert,  English  philosopher, 

his  works  much  read  by  M.  F.  See,  6 

Steele,  J.  Dorman,  writer  on  Science, 
his  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Astronomy 
purchased  by  Mr.  See,  Oct.  1,  1883, 

Stewart,  Jacob,  old  time  Virginian, 
cousin  of  wife  of  John  See,  recalls 
stories  of  Civil  War,  and  witnesses 
tornado  of  Jan.  1,  1876,  22-23 

Strabo,  the  Greek  geographer,  adopts 
Aristotle's  theory  of  earthquakes,  99 
destruction  of  cities  in  Syria,  100; 
eruptions  in  the  Sea  recorded,  121; 
remarks  on  the  depth  of  sea  on  the 
Climax  road  in  Pamphylia,  134 

Strachey,  Lieut.  General  Sir  Richard, 
his  estimate  of  the  width  of  the 
Plateau  of  Tibet,  141;  his  remarks 
on  the  relations  of  the  mountains  of 
Afghanistan  and  Persia  to  those  of 
India,  157;  the  uplift  and  outlines 
of  Asia  completed,  157 

Stromgren,  Professor  Elis,  eminent 
Danish  astronomer,  demonstrates 
elliptical  character  of  the  orbits  of 
all  comets,  162,  183,  184,  185,  227; 
advances  Cosmogony,  168;  on  cusps 
and  loops,  176,  177;  on  the  increase 
of  central  mass,  182;  finds  that  it 
can  not  decrease  the  eccentricity, 
232;  his  impression  of  See's  Re- 
searches, Vol.  II,  247 

Struve,  Professor  Hermann,  Director 
of  Royal  Observatory,  Berlin,  uses 
Professor  See's  observations,  74,  75 

Struve,  William,  his  systematic  observa- 
tions of  double  stars,  61;  estimates 
width  of  Milky  Way,  206 ;  absorption 
of  light  in  space,  201,  208,  209 

Stuckenberg,  Dr.  J.  H.  W.,  writer  on 
philosophy  and  pastor  of  American 
Church  in  Berlin,  voluntarily  rec- 
ommends Mr.  See  to  Dr.  Harper, 
President  of  the  University  of 
Chicago,  54 

Suess,  Professor  Edward,  eminent 
Austrian  geologist,  adopts  See's 
theory  of  mountain  formation,  136 


INDEX   OF   NAMES 


297 


Sykes,  Mr.  Godfrey,  engineer,  rebuilds 
Lowell  Observatory  at  Mexico,  68-69 

TACITUS,  Roman  historian,  recognizes 
that  importance  of  ancestry  often  is 
overrated,  1 ;  his  remarks  on  astrolo- 
gers, 249-50 

Talbot,  Fox,  measurement  of  double 
stars  at  great  distances,  198 

Tarr,  Professor  R.  S.,  investigates 
earthquake  at  Yakutat  Bay,  Alaska, 
1899,  105,  124 

Thomas,  Professor  B.  F.,  quits  Missouri 
University  in  1885,  32 

Thomson,  the  poet,  his  description  of 
Newton,  87,  88,  272 

Thucydides,  Greek  historian,  recognizes 
that  importance  of  ancestry  often  is 
overrated,  1 

Tietjen,  F.,  Professor  of  Astronomy  at 
Berlin,  one  of  Mr.  See's  teachers,  47 

Timocharis,  Greek  astronomer,  163 

Tindall,  Professor  W.  C.,  teaches  mathe- 
matics to  Mr.  See,  32 

Tisserand,  French  astronomer,  de- 
ceived in  Cosmogony,  164 

Trajan,  Emperor  of  Rome,  seeks  safety 
from  earthquakes  at  Antioch,  97 

Tschudi,  Von.,  quoted  by  Proctor,  146 

Tycho,  celebrated  Danish  astronomer, 
notable  advance  since  made  in  the 
theory  of  comets,  162;  had  little  in- 
tuition into  causes,  166;  mentioned  by 
Holmes  in  his  poem  welcoming  Dr. 
Gould,  258-9 

UPDEGRAFF,  Professor  Milton,  U.S.N., 
improves  standard  of  meridian  work 
of  Naval  Observatory,  72;  letter 
from  Professor  W.  B.  Smith  for 
banquet  in  honor  of  Dr.  See,  275, 276 

VEST,  U.S.  Senator  Geo.  G.,  his  speeches 
heard  by  Noah  See,  16;  would  need 
a  successor  in  Congress,  25 

Very,  Professor  F.  W.,  concludes  that 
White  Nebulae  may  be  galaxies,  213 

WARDNER,  A.  E.,  secures  a  copy  of 
Humboldt's  Cosmos  for  Mr.  See,  29 

Warner  &  Swasey,  of  Cleveland,  build 
the  mounting  of  Yerkes  telescope,  55 

Washington,  George,  first  President  of 
United  States,  his  maxim  of  avoiding 
entangling  alliances  with  other  na- 
tions, 260 


Webb,  W.  L.,  author  of  this  work,  has 
known  Professor  See  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  Introduction,  vii,  -ix;  ac- 
knowledgments to  Professor  L.  M. 
Defoe,  University  of  Missouri,  ix; 
his  indebtedness  t9  Professor  Harris 
Hancock,  University  of  Cincinnati, 
ix;  his  remarks  on  the  philosophic 
habits  of  Aristotle  and  Plato,  viii;  on 
the  death  9f  Poincare  and  Darwin 
in  1912,  viii;  on  the  preparation  of 
Champ  Clark's  biography,  ix;  the 
more  ambitious  work  on  Professor 
See  and  his  discoveries,  ix;  his  ac- 
knowledgments to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  and  to  the 
Historical  Society  of  Montgomery 
County,  Missouri,  ix;  served  on 
Legislative  Committee  for  the  investi- 
gation of  the  University  of  Missouri, 
1889,  37 

Weeks,  Mrs.  A.  M.,  sister  of  Professor 
See,  and  one  of  his  early  teachers,  6; 
especially  good  in  arithmetic,  17; 
induces  her  father  to  send  Tom  See 
to  school  in  Montgomery  City,  24-25; 
boyhood  teacher  of  Professor  See  in 
winter  of  1878-9,  24;  manages  Pro- 
fessor See's  household  in  Washington, 
79 

Weeks,  Mrs.  S.  T.,  sister  of  Professor 
See,  of  very  domestic  taste,  6 

Weeks,  Judge  S.  T.,  of  Calloway  Co., 
prominent  citizen,  Professor  See's 
brother-in-law,  State  Senator,  7 

Wegener,  a  friend  of  A.  von  Humboldt, 
30 

Weierstrass,  Professor  Karl,  the  emi- 
nent Berlin  mathematician,  advises 
Mr.  See  on  his  arrival  at  University 
of  Berlin,  47 

Whewell,  Dr.  William,  master  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  England,  his 
description  of  the  intellectual  charac- 
ter of  Newton  and  the  nature  of 
genius,  265 

Wilhelm,  His  Majesty,  the  German 
Emperor,  drives  daily  past  the  Uni- 
versity, 48;  is  told  of  Mr.  See's  work 
by  Professor  Foerster,  48;  in  mili- 
tary parade  with  the  Emperor  of 
Russia,  48 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  President  of  United 
States,  his  educational  reform  for 
greater  efficiency  at  Princeton  Uni- 
versity, 33;  his  biographer,  Mr. 
Wm.  Bayard  Hale,  on  the  work  of 
Professor  See,  257 


298 


INDEX   OF  NAMES 


Wolf,  Professor  Max,  of  Heidelberg, 
his  impression  of  See's  Researches, 
Vol.  II,  247 

Wolfer,  Professor  A.,  of  Zurich,  im- 
pression of  See's  Researches,  Vol.  II, 
248 

Wright,  Professor  W.  H.,  of  Lick  Ob- 
servatory, uses  motion  in  line  of  sight 
on  binaries,  59 

YERKES,  C.  T.,  founder  of  Yerkes  Ob- 
servatory, 54;  agrees  to  buy  glass 
discs  for  lenses  oT  Yerkes  telescope, 
54;  delay  in  building  observatory 
due  to  inflated  budget,  56;  building 


of  observatory  started  by  Dr.  See  in 
1894,56;  death  in  1905,  57 

Young,  Professor  C.  A.,  visited  by  Mr. 
See  on  way  to  Europe,  1889,  45; 
estimates  distance  of  remoter  stars 
at  from"  10,000  to  20,000  light-years, 
205 

ZELLER,  Profess9r  Edward,  eminent 
authority  in  philosophy  of  the  Greeks 
48;  visited  by  Mr.  See  in  his  study, 
49;  one  of  Mr.  See's  examiners,  49 

Zinzendorf,  Count,  of  Herrnhut,  Sax- 
ony, founds  Bethlehem,  1741,  2 


WORKS     OF    DR.    T.   J.    J.    SEE 

Researches   on  the  Evolution   of  the   Stellar 

Systems.     Vol.  I. 
By  T.  J.  J.  SEE,  A.M.,  Ph.  D. 

This  work  is  the  first  volume  of  an  extensive  investigation 
which  Dr.  SEE  has  undertaken  on  the  evolution  of  our  stellar 
systems.  The  introduction  begins  with  a  sketch  of  the  nebular 
hypothesis  of  our  solar  system.  In  Chapter  I  the  author  gives 
the  common  proof  of  the  Newtonian  law  of  force  for  our  solar 
system,  and  then  proceeds  to  consider  the  proof  for  the  orbits  of 
binary  stars.  Chapter  II  contains  the  orbits  of  forty  binary  stars 
deducted  from  the  best  observations.  Chapter  III  presents  a 
discussion  of  the  results.  Price,  full  cloth,  $5.00.  Postage  pre- 
paid, $5.35. 

Researches   on   the  Evolution   of  the   Stellar 

Systems.     Vol.  II. 
By  T.  J.  J.  SEE,  A.M.,  Ph.  D. 

This  splendid  work  is  indispensable  to  the  astronomer,  mathe- 
matician, physicist  and  geologist;  it  will  prove  of  decided  interest 
also  to  the  chemist,  biologist,  engineer,  and  in  fact  to  every  pro- 
gressive student,  thinker,  investigator,  library,  college,  university, 
observatory,  society,  or  other  institution  of  science  or  education. 

In  this  magnificent  work,  illustrated  throughout  by  views 
and  photographs  of  the  highest  beauty,  Prof.  SEE  deals  with  the 
conclusions  he  has  arrived  at  as  to  the  origin  of  our  own  and  other 
systems  generally  from  his  researches  during  the  last  twenty 
years;  and  gives  in  a  connected  form  the  matter  of  numerous 
papers  contributed  by  him  to  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten, 
Popular  Astronomy,  and  other  magazines. 

Bound  full  cloth,  736  pp.  with  about  250  illustrations,  in- 
cluding many  plates  of  wonderful  photographs  of  the  heavens. 
Price,  $10.00  per  copy,  express  prepaid. 

ADDRESS 

THOS.  P.  NICHOLS  &  SON  CO. 

PUBLISHERS 

Lynn,  Massachusetts 


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